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Diffstat (limited to 'programs')
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/ComputerEloList | 197 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/FewBits | 252 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/PCratings | 30 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/SSDF-RatingList | 994 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/engine-intf.html | 1895 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/harvar93.txt | 519 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/minimax.bib | 1338 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/minimax.dvi | bin | 0 -> 32832 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/pentopt.htm | 6723 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/testsuites | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/uniacke.ps | 12175 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | programs/xboard.html | 1300 |
12 files changed, 25425 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/programs/ComputerEloList b/programs/ComputerEloList new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c7726d --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/ComputerEloList @@ -0,0 +1,197 @@ +Computerrangliste nach Werner Stowasser +(Stand: Dezember 1992) + +Ausgewertet wurden: +38.710 Partien "Computer gegen Computer" + 6.044 Partien "Mensch gegen Computer" + +Erklaerung der Abkuerzungen: +GR = Grossrechner +PC = PC-Programm + +Nr. Schachcomputer Elo +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. Deep Thought II (GR) 2.520 +2. Deep Thought I (GR) 2.470 +3. Cray Blitz (GR) 2.435 +4. Hitech (GR) 2.400 +5. Mephisto Vancouver 68030 2.322 +6. Mephisto RISC 1 MB ARM2 2.319 +7. Mephisto Lyon 68030 2.310 +8. Saitek Kasparow RISC 2500 512 KB ARM2 2.309 +9. Gideon ChessMachine 512 KB ARM2 (PC) 2.291 +10. The King ChessMachine 512 KB ARM2 (PC) 2.289 +11. M Chess 1.66 AT 80486 (PC) 2.285 +12. Mephisto Portorose 68030 2.281 +13. BeBe (GR) 2.260 +14. Fidelity Elite 68040 2.255 +15. Mephisto Vancouver 68020 2.236 +16. Fidelity Elite 68030 2.235 +17. M Chess 1.41 AT 80486 (PC) 2.228 +18. M Chess 1.66 AT 80386 (PC) 2.224 +19. Fidelity Elite 68020 2.220 +20. Mephisto Lyon 68020 2.210 +21. Belle (GR) 2.200 +22. Mephisto Portorose 68020 2.189 +23. Fidelity Mach IV 68020 2.174 +24. M Chess 1.41 AT 80386 (PC) 2.164 +25. Fidelity Elite Premiere 68000 2.162 + M Chess 1.66 AT 80286 (PC) 2.162 + Mephisto Vancouver 68000 2.162 +28. Fritz AT 80486 (PC) 2.158 +29. Mephisto Berlin 68000 2.155 +30. Fidelity Designer Master 68020 2.149 +31. Mephisto Almeria 68020 2.145 +32. Mephisto Lyon 68000 2.133 +33. Fidelity Elite 68000 X 2 2.123 +34. Chessmaster 3000 AT 80486 (PC) 2.121 +35. Fidelity Elite 68000 2.108 +36. Mephisto Portorose 68000 2.090 +37. M Chess 1.41 AT 80286 (PC) 2.087 +38. Fidelity Mach III 68000 2.079 +39. Novag Diablo/Scorpio 68000 2.077 +40. Mephisto Roma 68020 2.072 +41. Rexchess V. 2.3 AT 80386 (PC) 2.068 +42. Fidelity Designer Master 68000 2.067 + Peri Epsilon 68000 2.067 +44. Mephisto Dallas 68020 2.066 +45. Fritz AT 80386 (PC) 2.065 +46. Zarkov V. 2.5 AT 80386 (PC) 2.064 +47. Mephisto Almeria 68000 2.062 +48. Saitek Kasparow GK 2000 H8 - 10 MHz 2.060 +49. Chessmaster 3000 AT 80386 (PC) 2.023 +50. Mephisto Milano 6502 - 5 MHz 2.020 +51. Mephisto Roma 68000 2.020 +52. Novag Super Expert/Forte C 6502 - 6 MHz 2.018 +53. Mephisto Polgar 6502 - 5 MHz 2.015 +54. Mephisto Dallas 68000 2.014 +55. Mephisto MM V 6502 - 5 MHz 2.011 +56. Mephisto Roma II 68000 2.000 +57. Fidelity Mach II 68000 1.993 +58. Mephisto Academy 6502 - 5 MHz 1.976 +59. Mephisto Amsterdam 68000 1.974 +60. Saitek Leonardo M D 6502 - 10 MHz 1.972 +61. Fidelity Travel Master H8 - 10 MHz 1.968 +62. Novag Super Expert/Forte B 6502 - 6 MHz 1.966 +63. Fritz AT 80286 (PC) 1.959 +64. Fidelity Prestige Avantgarde 6502 - 8 MHz + GME 1.955 +65. Mephisto Mega IV 6502 - 5 MHz 1.954 +66. Mephisto MM IV 6502 - 5 MHz 1.940 +67. Fidelity Excel 68000 1.927 +68. Psion Chess Atari 68000 (PC) 1.925 +69. Fidelity Designer 2100 6502 - 6 MHz 1.922 +70. Saitek Turboking 6502 - 5 MHz 1.919 +71. Saitek Travel Champion H8 - 8 MHz 1.912 +72. Chessmaster 3000 AT 80286 (PC) 1.910 +73. Fidelity Elite Avantgarde 6502 - 5 MHz 1.905 +74. Saitek Leonardo M C 6502 - 8 MHz 1.902 +75. CXG Sphinx Galaxy/Dominator 6502 - 4 MHz 1.900 +76. Novag Super Expert/Forte A 6502 - 5 MHz 1.898 +77. Fidelity Par Excellence 6502 - 5 MHz 1.895 + Fidelity Phantom 6502 - 5 MHz 1.895 +79. Peri Delta 6502 - 5 MHz 1.891 +80. Conchess Plymate Victoria 6502 - 5,5 MHz 1.885 +81. Novag Expert/Forte B 6502 - 5 MHz 1.880 +82. Novag Expert/Forte A 6502 - 5 MHz 1.872 +83. Mephisto College 6502 - 5 MHz 1.868 +84. Fidelity Kishon Chesster 6502 - 3,6 MHz 1.863 +85. Saitek Leonardo M B 6502 - 6 MHz 1.862 +86. Mephisto Monte Carlo/Supermondial 6502 - 4 MHz 1.860 +87. Mephisto Rebell 6502 - 5 MHz 1.851 +88. Saitek Corona 6502 - 6 MHz 1.850 +89. Fidelity Excel Display 6502 - 3 MHz 1.848 +90. Saitek Leonardo M A 6502 - 6 MHz 1.846 +91. Fidelity Excellence 6502 - 4 MHz 1.845 +92. Novag Constellation Expert 6502 - 4 MHz 1.844 + Saitek Stratos 6502 - 6 MHz 1.844 +94. Saitek Advanced Trainer H8 - 7 MHz 1.837 +95. Conchess Plymate 6502 - 5,5 MHz 1.835 + Fidelity Elegance 6502 - 3,6 MHz 1.835 +97. Peri Gamma 6502 - 3 MHz 1.834 +98. Saitek Simultano 6502 - 5 MHz 1.832 +99. Saitek Renaissance 6502 - 4 MHz 1.816 +100. Fidelity Excellence 6502 - 3 MHz 1.810 +101. Mephisto MM II 6502 - 3,7 MHz 1.809 +102. Conchess Plymate 6502 - 4 MHz 1.806 +103. Saitek Turbostar 432 6502 - 4 MHz 1.803 +104. Mephisto Modena 6502 - 4 MHz 1.800 + Novag Superconstellation 6502 - 4 MHz 1.800 +106. Fidelity Elite Glasgow 6502 - 4 MHz 1.797 +107. Novag Super Nova - Single Chip 1.790 +108. Mephisto Glasgow 68000 1.785 +109. Chessplayer 2150 Atari/Amiga 68000 (PC) 1.784 +110. Fidelity Elite Budapest 6502 - 3,6 MHz 1.772 +111. Saitek Kasparov Blitz/Prisma - Single Chip 1.760 +112. Chessmaster 2100 Amiga 68000 (PC) 1.751 +113. Fidelity Elite A/S 6502 - 3,2 MHz 1.750 +114. Novag Constellation Quattro 6502 - 4 MHz 1.748 +115. Fidelity Prestige 6502 - 4 MHz 1.743 +116. Novag Super Vip - Single Chip 1.742 +117. Mephisto B & P 6502 - 3,7 MHz 1.740 +118. Mephisto Europa 6502 - 3 MHz 1.736 +119. Conchess Glasgow 6502 - 4 MHz 1.735 +120. The Final Chesscard 6502 - 5 MHz (PC) 1.733 +121. Novag Constellation 6502 - 3,6 MHz 1.732 +122. Chess Champion 2175 Atari/Amiga 68000 (PC) 1.712 +123. Fidelity Elite 6502 - 4 MHz 1.710 +124. Novag Constellation Primo - Single Chip 1.703 +125. Chessmaster 2000 Atari 68000 (PC) 1.702 +126. Check-Check AT 80386 (PC) 1.695 +127. Fidelity Playmate-S 6502 - 3,2 MHz 1.690 +128. Conchess Glasgow 6502 - 2 MHz 1.685 +129. Novag Constellation 6502 - 2 MHz 1.677 +130. Mephisto Mondial 6502 - 2 MHz 1.675 +131. Fidelity Sensory 12 6502 - 3 MHz 1.670 +132. Novag Amigo - Single Chip 1.650 +133. Fidelity Sensory Super 9 6502 - 2,5 MHz 1.648 +134. Mephisto Schachschule - Single Chip 1.644 +135. Saitek Cavalier - Single Chip 1.642 +136. Saitek Superstar 6502 - 2 MHz 1.630 +137. Mephisto Excalibur II 68000 1.629 +138. Fidelity Sensory 9 6502 - 2 MHz 1.620 +139. Mephisto Excalibur I 68000 1.608 +140. CXG Sphinx Professor - Single Chip 1.595 +141. CXG Super Enterprise - Single Chip 1.585 +142. Steinitz MGS III 6502 - 2,5 MHz 1.584 +143. Bogol 5.0 ASB 6502 - 3 MHz 1.575 +144. Mephisto Mirage 1806 - 8 MHz 1.562 +145. Morphy MGS III 6502 - 2,5 MHz 1.542 +146. Chess 2001 6502 - 4 MHz 1.540 +147. Mephisto III S ESB 6000 1806 - 6,1 MHz 1.534 +148. Fidelity Champion 6502 - 2 MHz 1.530 +149. Saitek Turbo S 6502 - 3 MHz 1.514 +150. Sandy MGS II 6502 - 2 MHz 1.510 +151. SciSys Mark V 1806 - 2,5 MHz 1.495 +152. Sargon ARB 2.0 / MGS II 1806 - 2 MHz 1.480 +153. Destini MM 6502 2 MHz 1.470 +154. Mephisto III 1806 - 3,5 MHz 1.464 +155. Novag Savant Robot 6502 - 2 MHz 1.462 +156. Regence TSB 4 6502 - 2,5 MHz 1.460 +157. Novag Solo - Single Chip 1.443 +158. CXG Enterprise - Single Chip 1.423 +159. Milton 6502 - 2 MHz 1.420 +160. Saitek Turbo - Single Chip 1.416 +161. Sci Sys President Chess 1806 - 2 MHz 1.414 +162. Mephisto II - 1806 - 3,5 MHz 1.412 +163. Fidelity Sensory Voice - Single Chip 1.394 +164. Fidelity Poppy - Single Chip 1.380 + SciSys Mark III Super System - Single Chip 1.380 +166. Peri Beta - Single Chip 1.376 +167. Novag Savant Royal Z80 1.375 +168. Novag Savant II Z80 1.366 +169. Fidelity Voice Z80 1.359 +170. Mephisto Mobil - Single Chip 1.355 +171. Chess King Master - Single Chip 1.324 +172. Fidelity CC 7 Z80 1.311 +173. Boris Diplomat - Single Chip 1.300 + Fidelity CC 10 Z80 1.300 +175. Mephisto Junior - Single Chip 1.294 +176. Fidelity Sensory 6 - Single Chip 1.275 +177. Novag Savant I Z80 1.273 +178. Mephisto Mini - Single Chip 1.268 +179. Boris 2.5 - Single Chip 1.267 +180. Mephisto I - Single Chip 1.252 +181. CXG Sphinx Granada - Single Chip 1.173 +182. SciSys Mark II - Single Chip 1.090 +183. CXG Sphinx Chesscard - Single Chip 1.087 +184. SciSys Mark I - Single Chip 985 diff --git a/programs/FewBits b/programs/FewBits new file mode 100644 index 0000000..68f0ae5 --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/FewBits @@ -0,0 +1,252 @@ +From: [email protected] (toby robison) +Newsgroups: rec.games.chess +Subject: Notating positions in as few bits as possible +Date: 9 Mar 1993 + + +HOW TO NOTATE CHESS POSITIONS IN THE FEWEST AVERAGE BITS PER POSITION + +This article is Copyright (C) by Toby Robison, Princeton NJ USA 1993. +Please name the author when quoting from it. + +This is a discussion, not a solution to this rather difficult problem. + +Several people provided useful information that I will be quoting below: +- [email protected] (Steven Pigeon) +- [email protected] (J Nievergelt) +- [email protected] (Peter Rainer) + + + +INTRODUCTION: + +The problem here is to come with ways to encode chess positions +that require, on the average, as few bits as possible. We shall +consider legal positions only (illegal positions being less useful +and requiring more bits). + +We are considering idealized solutions. It should not be necessary +to encode or decode a position very fast, and we accept that any +error in the data may make the positions unreadable. + +It turns out that this problem is similar +to general problems of video compression. Consequently we even have +to consider what sorts of positions are intertesting to us -- +the solution could be different if we want to find the best average +result for "every legal position", or for "every typical legal position +that comes up in good games" or in "every typical position of the sorts +that are published (using a diagram or other direct notation, such +as Forsyth) in chess publications". + +I shall not try to decide which is the proper target for this +investigation. Just please bear in mind that the open question will +affect the solutions we consider later. I shall sidestep this issue by +referring to "common" or "likely" positions, without having any idea +what these are. + +Notating a position also requires indicating which player is "to move" +and whether each player can castle (on each side). Strictly speaking we +should also indicate how long since a pawn has moved, whether en passant +captures are currently possible, and what positions +have occurred in the game (so that draws by repetition can be properly +analyzed). However these requirements simply push us back onto the +solutions that represent the position as the entire game, SO I SHALL +IGNORE THESE REQUIREMENTS. Let us just assume that one bit is set aside +to indicate which player is to move, unless the position is a checkmate. + +It is clear that the solution is less than 200 bits per position. +This is quite good considering that there are 64 squares. +Intuitively we have a budget of about 3 bits (8 possibilities) to +tell us what's going on at each square (11 possibilities for the ten +types of pieces and "empty"). + + +Apparently other people have been working on this problem in print. +Peter Rainer sent me this message: + +>Your approach to chess game compression is not new, +>there has been a paper in the ICCA Journal by +>Ingo Althoeffer discribing the idea. +>I think it was in 1991 or 1992. +>Peter Mysliwietz + +See also the information from Nievergelt, below. + +THE INVESTIGATION: + +APPROACH #1: + +Steven Pigeon starts with the number of legal chess positions, which he +says has been claimed to be 10^43 (but he did not check this out). +That value can be stored in 143 bits, so if we simply state an algorithm +for ordering all possible chess positions, we simply record the ordinal +number of the position. + +The drawback of this approach is that it requires +143 bits for ALL positions, but we ought to shoot for a better average than +that. One way to improve the solution is to find an ordering of all positions +such that more common positions come first in the ordering. THEN we use +a method of compressing the ordinal number of a position that favors +lower numbers. It is HIGHLY SPECULATIVE that any such really useful +ordering could be found of course. But if we find an ordering that +morely makes "sensible" positions come before unlikely and bizzarre ones, +we can waste LOTS of bits on the bizzarre and get an average a lot less +than 143 for "common" positions. + +APPROACH #2: + +One basic approach is to record which squares of the board are +occupied (64 bits), and then try to be extremely efficient about how +to say what the pieces in those squares are. For example, we could assume +that following the first 64 bits there is a code to identify the "first" +piece, then the second, and so on, assuming that we will start at A1 and +work, say, across and then up the board. + +Pigeon puts it this way: + +>The trick is to store the board's occupation as an 8x8 bit matrix, +>(1=occupied,0=free) and then list the pieces in order of presence +>in some list, where the codes for the pieces are derived from a +>Huffman adapative coding (since it is exponential coding), and it +>is the upper bound. Less pieces there is, less space it takes. + +>I'd say I should be able to drop it still a few bits, If I can figure +>a way of "discarding" the 8x8 matrix. + +We should note that as the board gets populated, the number of +possibilites for the remaining pieces is reduced, because we are considering +only legal positions. For example, both kings cannot be in check, there can +only be one king of each color, etc. In addition, pawns cannot be on the +first and last ranks; a white bishop at square A1 prevents a white pawn at +B2, etc. + +This approach is terrific for endgame positions even though it +wastes 64 bits on the board. Eight-piece positions will require less than +100 bits. But a position with all 32 pieces threatens to take a lot more +than 143. Consider for example, that we might need 4.5 bits per piece, +or 144 bits plus the 64 for the position. + +However as Pigeon observes above, if we use a code to represent each piece +that requires few bits for LIKELY occurrence of given pieces at each square, +we might do a lot better. + +APPROACH #3: + +This approach is very much like a pure video compression solution. +We divide the board up into smaller regions (such as 2 squares by +2 squares, but it would be better to make a subdivision based on chess +experience). We then use Huffman or some other probability based encoding to +characterize the piece patterns in each subregion. This approach takes advantage +of the fact that (especially in the late middle and endgames), a relatively +small number of piece patterns is common in each region. + +APPROACH #4: + +This is also a video-based compression technique. We encode where the +pices are based on a probabilistic knowledge of where they are likely to be. +(For example, it takes a lot of bits to place a knight on the rim.) +With a few additional bits to characterize the TYPE of position, this +approach might work well. + +APPROACH #5: + +J. Nievergelt sent me this astonishing claim: + +>It should be possible in under 100 bits. If interested, read: + +>J Nievergelt: Information content of chess positions, ACM SIGART Newsletter +>62, 13-14, April 1977. + +>reprinted in: +>Information content of chess positions: Implications for game-specific +>knowledge of chess players, 283-289 in Machine Intelligence 12, (eds. J. E. +>Hayes, D. Michie, E. Tyugu) , Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991. + +I have not had a chance to check the reference, but I think 100 bits is +incredibly few. In effect, it means specifying the state of each square +in 1.5 bits, or the state of each piece in 3 or 4 bits. + + +IN SUMMARY: + +We have a number of speculative approaches, unless Nievergelt has +really solved the problem. It seems likely that the best solution should +spend a few bits to characterize the position (opening, early middle, +late middle, endgame; open or closed), since different solutions may apply to +each. In particular, for the OPENING the best solution is either to record the +game moves, or else to encode only those differences that make +the position different from the starting one. + +In any case the validity of any solution must be tested against the +type of positions we WANT to encode, and I really think a lot +of experiemntation would be needed (which nobody probably wants to pay for). + +Please keep your comments coming, I will try to summarize... + +-- toby robison (not robinson) + + + + +From: [email protected] (toby robison) +Newsgroups: rec.games.chess +Subject: Notating positions in as few bits as possible +Date: 29 Mar 1993 + +A number of people responded to me regarding the problem of +notating chess positions in as few bits as possible. +The low bidder for REALISTIC positions seems to be J. Nievergelt, +whose solution, and a related game that looks like fun, are discussed below. + +For a solution that includes UNREALISTIC (but legal) positions, +The key question is how many positions there are. +I received several assertions regarding the number of possible chess +positions (roughly 2^143 ?). If one comes up with a method +for ordering all legal positions, then this number of bits can be +used to notate them. + + +TO NOTATE REALISTIC positions, see: + +J Nievergelt: Information content of chess positions, ACM SIGART Newsletter +62, 13-14, April 1977. It is also reprinted in: +Information content of chess positions: Implications for game-specific +knowledge of chess players, 283-289 in Machine Intelligence 12, (eds. J. E. +Hayes, D. Michie, E. Tyugu) , Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991. + +or correspond with: [email protected] (J Nievergelt) + + +JN's method is based on the observation that realistic positions are a small +fraction of the total possible. To verify this, he presents the following game, +which I encourage others to try (I'm going to try it myself). +Person A looks at a realistic position. Person B cannot see it, and asks +A multiple choice questions. Both A and B are KNOWLEDGABLE chess players. +B tries to figure out the position, using questions that require as few +total bits of answer-information as possible. + +It's obvious that a Y/N question requires one bit to record the answer. +A question with 4 choices requires 2 bits. Two three-way questions +together require slightly more than three bits, and so on. +JN's assertion, based on some experimentation, is that about 70 bits-worth +of answers are reasonable figure out positions. + +NOTE that we assume the questioner and responder can apply chess judgment, +so questions like "does the pawn structure suggest a closed French Defense?" +are acceptable. Even more important, the questioner gets to apply judgment +about what to ask next, depending upon the partial information currently known. + +Now to fully comprehend the solution, imagine a sophisticated program that +both asks and answers the questions, and figures out a position. The position +is recorded as the answers to the questions the program asked. To recreate the +position, we run the same program again and supply the same answer bits. + +The problem of creating this GENERAL program is very difficult. +According to JN, it may be impractical to write a program that gets +anywhere near to the best possible solution. Writing a program that requires +about 100 bits per position might be practical, though! + +The basic assertion looks like fun to test. Can you guess straightforward, +typical positions, in less than 100 bits of answer info? In 70? + +- toby robison (not tony, not robinson) diff --git a/programs/PCratings b/programs/PCratings new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9b48c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/PCratings @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +From: [email protected] (Ralf Stephan) +Newsgroups: rec.games.chess +Subject: Latest ratings for PC programs/cards + + +These are the latest ratings from the Svedish list, the Selective Search/ +News Sheet 41 and the Computer Chess Reports 1/92: (from MUDUL 3/92) +All ratings are USCF. For BCF, subtract 100; for FIDE, subtract 200. + + Processor Svedish CCR SS +-------------------------------------------------- +ChessMachine 512k + Schroeder v.2.1 ARM/16 2422 2435 2448 + The King ARM/16 2410 2416 2422 +MChess 1.1-1.66 486/33 2400 2401 2402 +Zarkov 2.6 486/33 2347 +C'Champion 2175 486/33 2343 +MChess 1.1-1.66 386/25-33 2338 +Grandmaster 486/33 ~2300 +Rexchess 2.30 486/33 2290 2294 2298 +Psion 2 486/33 2294 2294 +Zarkov 2.5 486/33 2277 2283 2289 +Knightstalker 486/33 2239 2260 2280 +Rexchess 2.30 386/25-33 2230 +Chessm. 3000 486/33 2187 2174 2161 +Psion 1 486/33 2140 2140 +Colossus x 486/33 2086 2086 +Chessm. 3000 386/25-33 2083 +Chessm. 2100 486/33 2073 2073 +Final Chesscard 6502 1887 1887 diff --git a/programs/SSDF-RatingList b/programs/SSDF-RatingList new file mode 100644 index 0000000..80e45eb --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/SSDF-RatingList @@ -0,0 +1,994 @@ + THE SSDF RATING LIST 1993-02-28 34065 games played + + Rating +- Games Won Oppo + ------ --- ----- --- ---- + 1 Chess Machine 30-32 MHz Schr�der 3.1 2388 329 27 91% 2013 + 2 Chess Machine 30 MHz King 2.0 aggr 2343 70 140 75% 2152 + 3 Chess Genius 486/50-66 MHz 2301 85 80 64% 2202 + 4 Chess Machine 30 MHz Schr�der 3.0 2281 68 149 76% 2086 + 4 MChess Pro 486/33 MHz 2281 67 133 68% 2148 + 6 Chess Genius 486/33 MHz 2276 69 120 65% 2170 + 7 Mephisto Lyon 68030 36 MHz 2259 59 250 84% 1975 + 8 Mephisto Portorose 68030 36 MHz 2245 47 342 82% 1984 + 8 Mephisto Vancouver 68030 36 MHz 2245 42 346 74% 2060 + 10 MChess Pro 486/50-66 MHz 2233 83 99 73% 2062 + 11 Mephisto RISC 1 MB ARM 2 14 MHz 2232 33 521 73% 2057 + 12 Chess Machine Schr�der 512K ARM2 16MHz 2216 33 528 71% 2057 + 12 Saitek RISC 2500 ARM2 14 MHz 128K 2216 43 299 68% 2082 + 14 Chess Machine The King 512K ARM2 16MHz 2209 45 288 72% 2045 + 15 MChess 1.1-1.71 80486 33 MHz 2198 43 326 74% 2019 + 16 Mephisto Lyon 68020 12 MHz 2155 24 932 71% 1997 + 17 Mephisto Vancouver 68020 12 MHz 2153 30 621 71% 1995 + 18 Mephisto Berlin 68 000 12 MHz 2139 42 335 73% 1966 + 19 M Chess 1.1-1.66 80386 25-33 MHz 2129 37 396 66% 2011 + 19 Fritz 2.0 486/33 MHz 2129 76 95 61% 2049 + 21 Mephisto Portorose 68020 12 MHz 2128 26 816 73% 1955 + 21 Fidelity Elite 68030 32 MHz (vers.9) 2128 44 324 75% 1935 + 23 Mephisto Vancouver 68000 12 MHz 2115 30 612 70% 1971 + 24 Mephisto Lyon 68000 12 MHz 2107 25 806 65% 1997 + 25 Mephisto MM 4 Turbo Kit 6502 16 MHz 2091 46 292 73% 1916 + 26 Mephisto Almeria 68020 12 MHz 2088 47 259 70% 1939 + 27 Fidelity Mach IV 68020 20 MHz 2080 26 760 65% 1972 + 28 Mephisto Portorose 68000 12 MHz 2047 28 667 66% 1929 + 29 Kasparov Brute Force H8 10 MHz 2044 137 40 70% 1896 + 30 Mephisto Polgar 6502 10 MHz 2041 42 283 59% 1978 + 31 Fidelity Elite 68000 x 2 (vers. 5) 2036 49 209 57% 1986 + 32 Rex Chess 2.3 80386 25-33 MHz 2030 64 126 59% 1965 + 33 Mephisto Roma 68020 14 MHz 2029 27 712 65% 1919 + 34 Fritz 1.0 80486 33 MHz 2021 63 128 56% 1980 + 35 Mephisto Dallas 68020 14 MHz 2020 34 492 72% 1858 + 36 Mephisto Almeria 68000 12 MHz 2019 32 534 67% 1896 + 37 Zarkov 2.5 80386 25-33 MHz 2018 56 168 61% 1939 + 38 Fritz 1.0 80386 25-33 MHz 2009 67 113 46% 2041 + 39 Novag Diablo 68000 16 MHz 2001 26 713 54% 1973 + 40 Fidelity Mach III 68000 16 MHz 1997 15 2049 56% 1957 + 41 Mephisto MM 5 6502 5 MHz 1979 22 967 54% 1947 + 42 Mephisto Polgar 6502 5 MHz 1971 19 1314 47% 1992 + 42 Mephisto Dallas 68000 12 MHz 1971 21 1074 63% 1876 + 44 Mephisto Roma 68000 12 MHz 1967 18 1452 57% 1920 + 45 Zarkov 2.6 386/25-33 MHz 1966 105 55 64% 1867 + 46 Mephisto Milano 6502 5 MHz 1955 31 490 48% 1972 + 47 Novag Super Expert C 6502 6 MHz Sel 5 1954 19 1242 50% 1956 + 48 Mephisto Academy 6502 5 MHz 1940 20 1193 48% 1956 + 49 Rex Chess 2.3 80386 16-20 MHz 1928 53 174 49% 1934 + 50 Saitek Leonardo Maestro B 6502 18 MHz 1925 72 105 62% 1839 + 51 Mephisto Amsterdam 68000 12 MHz 1924 22 1020 58% 1870 + 52 Mephisto Mega IV 6502 4.9 MHz 1916 18 1354 48% 1934 + 53 Fidelity Excel Mach IIc 68000 12 MHz 1915 23 913 52% 1904 + 54 Saitek Maestro D 6502 10 MHz 1914 25 730 51% 1905 + 55 Novag Expert Turbo Kit 6502 16 MHz 1906 67 120 61% 1825 + 56 Novag Super Expert B 6502 6 MHz sel 4 1904 32 468 51% 1896 + 56 Kasparov GK-2000 H8 10 MHz 1904 48 223 42% 1960 + 58 Fidelity Travel Master H8/330 10 MHz 1902 79 123 22% 2117 + 59 Mephisto MM 4 6502 5 MHz 1901 19 1268 50% 1898 + 60 Chessmaster 3000 386/25-33 MHz 1900 101 59 36% 2005 + 61 Mephisto Modena 6502 4 MHz 1886 41 305 41% 1951 + 62 Psion Atari 68000 8 MHz 1880 18 1463 44% 1924 + 63 CXG Sphinx Galaxy 6502 4 MHz 1875 19 1293 41% 1943 + 63 Fidelity Excel Mach IIa 68000 12 MHz 1875 46 226 47% 1895 + 65 Saitek Turboking II 6502 5 MHz 1872 25 752 41% 1937 + 66 Conchess Plymate Victoria 6502 5.5 MHz 1862 27 657 40% 1931 + 67 Fidelity Excel Club 68000 12 MHz 1854 22 931 51% 1845 + 68 Mephisto Mega IV Brute Force 1840 45 240 50% 1837 + 69 Fidelity Avant Garde 6502 5 MHz 1832 20 1196 46% 1863 + 70 Novag Super Expert/Forte A 6502 5 MHz 1831 21 1118 41% 1895 + 71 Fidelity Par Excellence 6502 5 MHz 1829 23 912 51% 1825 + 72 Mephisto Rebell 6502 5 MHz 1821 20 1233 40% 1891 + 73 Saitek Stratos/Analys B 6502 6 MHz 1817 20 1213 38% 1905 + 74 Novag Forte B 6502 5 MHz 1813 24 837 44% 1857 + 75 Mephisto Super Mondial 6502 4 MHz 1812 20 1205 39% 1894 + 75 Conchess Glasgow 6 MHz 1812 158 41 78% 1593 + 77 Conchess Plymate 6502 5.5 MHz 1808 16 1920 41% 1870 + 78 Saitek Leonardo Maestro A 6502 6 MHz 1807 30 547 45% 1842 + 79 Novag Forte A 6502 5 MHz 1806 22 939 49% 1814 + 79 Saitek Simultano/Corona C 6502 5 MHz 1806 24 927 33% 1929 + 81 Fidelity Excellence 6502 4 MHz 1798 17 1565 43% 1849 + 82 Novag Expert 6502 4 MHz 1784 24 812 43% 1837 + 83 Conchess Plymate 6502 4 MHz 1775 38 343 55% 1739 + 84 Mephisto MM 2 6502 3.7 MHz 1769 48 208 52% 1752 + 85 Fidelity Elegance 6502 3.6 MHz 1761 39 339 61% 1685 + 86 Saitek Turbostar 432 6502 4 MHz 1759 21 1034 46% 1789 + 87 Fidelity Excellence 6502 3 MHz 1753 22 962 42% 1811 + 88 Saitek Kasparov Blitz 1736 50 202 41% 1798 + 89 Novag Super Nova 1732 38 350 40% 1801 + 90 Novag Super Constellation 6502 4 MHz 1728 17 1695 39% 1807 + 91 Conchess Glasgow 6502 4 MHz 1712 37 342 50% 1713 + 92 Chessplayer 2150 Atari/Amiga 1709 67 126 34% 1828 + 93 Mephisto B&P 6502 3.7 MHz 1700 85 78 38% 1787 + 94 The Final Chesscard 6502 5 MHz 1695 65 149 28% 1861 + 95 Mephisto Europa 1685 54 170 45% 1721 + 96 Novag Super VIP 1684 58 174 32% 1812 + 97 Fidelity Elite A/S 6502 3.2 MHz 1677 21 1149 38% 1762 + 98 Chessmaster 2100 Amiga 68000 1676 85 100 25% 1871 + 99 Saitek Superstar 36K 6502 2 MHz 1675 24 958 31% 1814 + 100 Chess Champion 2175 Atari/Amiga 1670 62 157 30% 1818 + 100 Mephisto Exclusive S 1670 80 81 44% 1709 + 102 Fidelity Prestige 6502 4 MHz 1665 40 341 66% 1545 + 103 Conchess Glasgow 6502 2 MHz 1663 24 863 35% 1775 + 104 Novag Quattro 6502 4 MHz 1659 31 560 33% 1786 + 105 Chessmaster 2000 Atari 68000 8 MHz 1651 45 312 25% 1838 + 106 Novag Constellation 6502 3.6 MHz 1644 28 596 46% 1674 + 107 Novag Constellation Primo 1634 58 149 44% 1679 + 108 Fidelity Elite -81 1604 63 151 69% 1468 + 109 Novag Constellation 6502 2 MHz 1596 23 865 50% 1599 + 110 Sargon III 1 MHz 1590 148 27 44% 1630 + 111 Mephisto Mondial 1581 71 100 46% 1609 + 112 CXG Super Enterprise 1561 37 410 31% 1700 + 113 Fidelity Sensory 9 B 1553 87 68 54% 1527 + 114 Fidelity Sensory 9 A 1494 30 511 50% 1495 + 115 Steinitz 1480 39 324 45% 1516 + 116 Mephisto III Modular 1471 53 189 38% 1557 + 117 Mephisto II 6.1 MHz 1470 33 450 46% 1499 + 118 Saitek Turbo 16K 1463 85 90 29% 1616 + 119 Chess 2001 1462 73 101 40% 1536 + 120 Scisys Superstar 1454 55 179 35% 1561 + 121 Mephisto III 6.1 MHz 1452 56 194 29% 1608 + 122 Saitek Turbo S 24K 1431 89 95 24% 1628 + 123 Conchess -82 2 MHz 1408 41 299 41% 1469 + 124 GMC 1385 40 306 44% 1427 + 125 Mephisto II 3.5 MHz 1380 39 306 49% 1388 + 126 Champion Sensory Challenger 1379 38 336 48% 1395 + 127 Mark VI 1375 62 163 28% 1538 + 128 Mark V 1352 38 353 40% 1425 + 129 Morphy 1334 48 220 41% 1399 + 130 Progidy 1266 205 28 23% 1473 + 131 Enterprise S 1182 139 46 24% 1383 + 132 Boris 2.5 1171 97 75 27% 1348 + + + 1 Chess Machine 30-32 MHz Schr�der 3.1, 2388 +Ch.Gen 486/50 1-0 MChPro 486/33 1-0 Chess M. King 0.5-0.5 +Mach III 9-2 Polgar 5 MHz 13-0 + + 2 Chess Machine 30 MHz King 2.0 aggr, 2343 +Ch.Gen 486/50 3-1 MChPro 486/33 11-9 Ch.Gen 486/33 13.5-6.5 +MChPro 486/50 1.5-1.5 Meph. RISC 13.5-6.5 RISC 2500 7.5-2.5 +Vancou. 68000 2.5-1.5 Lyon 68000 8-3 Roma 68020 18.5-1.5 +Mach III 6-0 Meph. MM 5 2-0 Polgar 5 MHz 18-2 + + 3 Chess Genius 486/50-66 MHz, 2301 +CM30 Schr 3.0 0.5-0.5 Vancou. 68030 12-8 Chess M Schr� 20.5-9.5 +Chess M. King 8.5-5.5 Diablo 68000 3.5-1.5 Polgar 5 MHz 5-0 + + 4 Chess Machine 30 MHz Schr�der 3.0, 2281 +Meph. RISC 11-9 RISC 2500 1.5-2.5 M Chess 486 1-0 +Vancou. 68020 11.5-8.5 Vancou. 68000 17.5-2.5 Lyon 68000 15-5 +Roma 68020 4-1 Diablo 68000 16-4 Mach III 10.5-0.5 +Meph. MM 5 6.5-0.5 Polgar 5 MHz 17.5-2.5 + + 5 MChess Pro 486/33 MHz, 2281 +Ch.Gen 486/33 10-9 RISC 2500 6-4 Lyon 68020 8-2 +Vancou. 68020 7-4 Vancou. 68000 14.5-5.5 Lyon 68000 1-1 +Mach III 17-3 Polgar 5 MHz 18-2 + + 6 Chess Genius 486/33 MHz, 2276 +Meph. RISC 11-8 RISC 2500 12.5-7.5 Lyon 68020 0-1 +Lyon 68000 1-0 Mach III 18.5-1.5 Polgar 5 MHz 19-1 + + 7 Mephisto Lyon 68030 36 MHz, 2259 +Chess M Schr� 1.5-1.5 M Chess 486 4.5-2.5 Lyon 68020 13.5-6.5 +Lyon 68000 14-6 Mach III 18-2 Meph. MM 5 16.5-3.5 +Polgar 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 Roma 68000 17-3 Super Exp. C 16.5-3.5 +Academy 5 MHz 16.5-3.5 Meph. Mega IV 20-0 Psion Atari 19-1 +Turboking II 18.5-1.5 Plym Victoria 19.5-0.5 + + 8 Mephisto Portorose 68030 36 MHz, 2245 +Portor. 68020 12.5-7.5 Elite 68030 14.5-5.5 Almeria 68020 14-6 +Portor. 68000 14-6 Elite vers.5 14-6 Almeria 68000 16-4 +Mach III 17.5-2.5 Polgar 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 Dallas 68000 19.5-0.5 +Roma 68000 19-1 Super Exp. C 13-7 Academy 5 MHz 17-3 +Amsterdam 19.5-0.5 Meph. Mega IV 17.5-3.5 Maestro D 10 20-0 +Psion Atari 19-1 Sphinx Galaxy 17.5-2.5 Rebell 5 MHz 1-0 + + 9 Mephisto Vancouver 68030 36 MHz, 2245 +MChPro 486/50 1.5-0.5 Meph. RISC 11.5-8.5 Chess M Schr� 11-9 +Chess M. King 10-10 M Chess 486 11-9 Vancou. 68020 16-4 +Vancou. 68000 13.5-6.5 Lyon 68000 13-7 Diablo 68000 15.5-4.5 +Meph. MM 5 18.5-1.5 Polgar 5 MHz 16.5-3.5 Dallas 68000 18.5-1.5 +Roma 68000 18-2 Meph. Milano 15.5-4.5 Meph. Mega IV 17.5-2.5 +Psion Atari 19.5-0.5 Sphinx Galaxy 18.5-1.5 Turboking II 4-0 + + 10 MChess Pro 486/50-66 MHz, 2233 +Chess M Schr� 5-7 Chess M. King 2-2 Fritz2 486/33 13.5-6.5 +Vancou. 68000 15-5 Meph. Mega IV 18.5-1.5 Super Exp. B 7.5-0.5 +Psion Atari 8.5-1.5 + + 11 Mephisto RISC 1 MB ARM 2 14 MHz, 2232 +Chess M Schr� 10.5-9.5 Chess M. King 11-9 M Chess 486 11-10 +Lyon 68020 11-9 Vancou. 68020 14-6 Berlin 68 000 12-8 +Portor. 68020 13.5-6.5 Vancou. 68000 12-8 Diablo 68000 17.5-2.5 +Mach III 18.5-1.5 Meph. MM 5 17.5-2.5 Polgar 5 MHz 18-2 +Dallas 68000 10.5-0.5 Meph. Milano 17.5-2.5 Super Exp. C 17-3 +Academy 5 MHz 17.5-2.5 Meph. Mega IV 19-1 Kasp. GK-2000 10-0 +Mephisto MM 4 18-2 Meph. Modena 18-2 Psion Atari 18.5-1.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 18-2 Turboking II 18.5-1.5 + + 12 Chess Machine Schr�der 512K ARM2 16MHz, 2216 +Chess M. King 2-0 M Chess 486 7-7 Lyon 68020 32.5-27.5 +M Chess 386 26-13 Portor. 68020 0.5-0.5 Vancou. 68000 5-2 +Lyon 68000 31.5-14.5 Rex 2.3 33MHz 1.5-0.5 Zark25 386/33 1.5-0.5 +Fritz1 386/33 1.5-0.5 Diablo 68000 18-2 Mach III 35.5-6.5 +Polgar 5 MHz 22-3 Roma 68000 17.5-7.5 Zark26 386/25 2-0 +Super Exp. C 25.5-4.5 Academy 5 MHz 16-4 Amsterdam 20-0 +Meph. Mega IV 9-1 Super Exp. B 14.5-5.5 Psion Atari 3-0 +Sphinx Galaxy 29.5-1.5 Turboking II 19-1 + + 13 Saitek RISC 2500 ARM2 14 MHz 128K, 2216 +M Chess 486 4-0 Vancou. 68020 35.5-24.5 Fritz2 486/33 13.5-6.5 +Vancou. 68000 12-8 Mach IV 68020 28.5-11.5 Fritz1 486/33 12-4 +Mach III 14.5-5.5 Meph. Milano 18-2 Super Exp. C 1.5-1.5 +Kasp. GK-2000 20-0 Travel Master 18-2 Sphinx Galaxy 6-1 +Turboking II 4-1 + + 14 Chess Machine The King 512K ARM2 16MHz, 2209 +M Chess 486 8-3 Lyon 68020 3-2 Vancou. 68020 11-8 +Vancou. 68000 0.5-4.5 Lyon 68000 16.5-7.5 Diablo 68000 21.5-2.5 +Mach III 16.5-3.5 Meph. MM 5 1.5-0.5 Super Exp. C 17-3 +Academy 5 MHz 14-6 Meph. Mega IV 9-1 Psion Atari 23.5-2.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 18.5-1.5 Turboking II 19.5-1.5 + + 15 MChess 1.1-1.71 80486 33 MHz, 2198 +Lyon 68020 9.5-6.5 Vancou. 68020 3-3 Lyon 68000 1.5-1.5 +Portor. 68000 5-0 Roma 68020 7.5-0.5 Polgar 5 MHz 33-7 +Roma 68000 16.5-3.5 Super Exp. C 17.5-2.5 Academy 5 MHz 17-3 +Amsterdam 19-1 Meph. Mega IV 10-0 Travel Master 16.5-3.5 +Psion Atari 17.5-2.5 Sphinx Galaxy 16.5-3.5 Turboking II 18.5-1.5 + + 16 Mephisto Lyon 68020 12 MHz, 2155, (2217 vs humans, 12 games) +Berlin 68 000 9.5-10.5 M Chess 386 41-33 Lyon 68000 10-10 +Mach IV 68020 22.5-17.5 Portor. 68000 12.5-7.5 Polgar 10 MHz 20-10 +Rex 2.3 33MHz 14.5-5.5 Fritz1 486/33 14-6 Zark25 386/33 14-6 +Fritz1 386/33 14-6 Diablo 68000 13-7 Mach III 19-8 +Meph. MM 5 13.5-6.5 Polgar 5 MHz 18-3 Roma 68000 15-5 +Meph. Milano 16-4 Super Exp. C 17-3 Academy 5 MHz 13-7 +Rex 2.3 20MHz 1.5-0.5 Meph. Mega IV 17-3 Excel Mach 2c 31.5-4.5 +Super Exp. B 7.5-2.5 Mephisto MM 4 18.5-1.5 CM3000 386/33 18.5-1.5 +Meph. Modena 17-3 Psion Atari 18-2 Sphinx Galaxy 15-5 +Turboking II 18-2 Plym Victoria 19.5-1.5 Super Exp. A 17.5-2.5 +Rebell 5 MHz 19-1 Stratos 6 MHz 18.5-1.5 Super Mondial 19.5-0.5 +Plymate 5.5 20-0 Simultano C 19-1 Excellence 4 17-2 + + 17 Mephisto Vancouver 68020 12 MHz, 2153 +Berlin 68 000 10.5-10.5 Mach IV 68020 24.5-8.5 Fritz1 386/33 4-1 +Diablo 68000 16.5-3.5 Mach III 2.5-2.5 Meph. MM 5 14.5-5.5 +Polgar 5 MHz 17-4 Meph. Milano 19.5-0.5 Super Exp. C 14.5-5.5 +Academy 5 MHz 18-2 Meph. Mega IV 17-3 Travel Master 17-3 +Mephisto MM 4 16.5-3.5 Meph. Modena 16-4 Psion Atari 17-3 +Sphinx Galaxy 17.5-2.5 Turboking II 17-3 Plym Victoria 17-3 +Super Exp. A 17-3 Rebell 5 MHz 17-3 Stratos 6 MHz 17-3 +Super Mondial 17.5-2.5 Plymate 5.5 20-0 Simultano C 19-1 + + 18 Mephisto Berlin 68 000 12 MHz, 2139 +Portor. 68020 10.5-9.5 Diablo 68000 14.5-5.5 Mach III 6.5-0.5 +Meph. MM 5 16-4 Roma 68000 4-1 Meph. Milano 17-3 +Super Exp. C 27-8 Meph. Mega IV 16-4 Kasp. GK-2000 13-7 +Meph. Modena 16.5-3.5 Plym Victoria 14-2 Mega IV BF 8-0 +Super Mondial 16.5-3.5 Plymate 5.5 17-3 Simultano C 19-4 + + 19 M Chess 1.1-1.66 80386 25-33 MHz, 2129 +Portor. 68020 7.5-5.5 Lyon 68000 29-22 Rex 2.3 33MHz 7.5-2.5 +Zark25 386/33 2.5-1.5 Mach III 1.5-0.5 Meph. MM 5 16.5-10.5 +Polgar 5 MHz 30-7 Academy 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 CM3000 386/33 2-2 +Sphinx Galaxy 20-2 Plym Victoria 22-4 Rebell 5 MHz 3.5-0.5 +Plymate 5.5 12-0 Maestro A 6 5-0 Simultano C 35.5-4.5 +Expert 4 MHz 6-0 + + 20 Fritz 2.0 486/33 MHz, 2129 +Diablo 68000 16-4 Polgar 5 MHz 7-3 Academy 5 MHz 4-1 +Stratos 6 MHz 18-2 + + 21 Mephisto Portorose 68020 12 MHz, 2128, (2181 vs humans, 10 games) +Elite 68030 9.5-14.5 Lyon 68000 10-10 MM 4 Turbo 16 9.5-1.5 +Mach IV 68020 23-17 Portor. 68000 12.5-7.5 Polgar 10 MHz 12.5-7.5 +Roma 68020 2-0 Almeria 68000 13.5-6.5 Mach III 31.5-16.5 +Meph. MM 5 12-8 Polgar 5 MHz 20.5-4.5 Dallas 68000 3.5-0.5 +Roma 68000 18-2 Meph. Milano 15-5 Super Exp. C 33-11 +Academy 5 MHz 12-8 Meph. Mega IV 14.5-5.5 Excel Mach 2c 26.5-5.5 +Maestro D 10 15-6 Super Exp. B 7.5-2.5 Mephisto MM 4 17-3 +Meph. Modena 18-2 Psion Atari 15-5 Sphinx Galaxy 17-3 +Turboking II 17.5-2.5 Plym Victoria 17-3 Avant Garde 19-1 +Super Exp. A 19-1 Rebell 5 MHz 19-1 Stratos 6 MHz 19.5-0.5 +Super Mondial 20.5-4.5 Plymate 5.5 19-1 Simultano C 15-5 +Excellence 4 17-3 Expert 4 MHz 15-1 + + 22 Fidelity Elite 68030 32 MHz (vers.9), 2128 +Portor. 68000 12.5-7.5 Mach III 15-6 Polgar 5 MHz 16.5-3.5 +Super Exp. C 12-8 Academy 5 MHz 13-7 Meph. Mega IV 16.5-3.5 +Maestro D 10 17-3 Psion Atari 17-3 Sphinx Galaxy 17.5-2.5 +Super Exp. A 16-4 Rebell 5 MHz 16-3 Super Mondial 19.5-0.5 +Simultano C 16.5-3.5 Excellence 4 18.5-1.5 + + 23 Mephisto Vancouver 68000 12 MHz, 2115 +Fritz1 386/33 16-4 Diablo 68000 11-9 Mach III 26-15 +Meph. MM 5 29.5-10.5 Meph. Milano 16-4 Super Exp. C 13.5-6.5 +Academy 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 Meph. Mega IV 16.5-3.5 Excel Mach 2c 18-2 +CM3000 386/33 9-4 Psion Atari 14-6 Sphinx Galaxy 17-3 +Turboking II 18-2 Plym Victoria 16-4 Super Exp. A 18-2 +Rebell 5 MHz 16.5-3.5 Stratos 6 MHz 15-5 Super Mondial 17.5-2.5 +Plymate 5.5 19-1 Simultano C 20-0 Excellence 4 19.5-0.5 +Super Const. 18.5-1.5 Meph. Europa 2-0 + + 24 Mephisto Lyon 68000 12 MHz, 2107 +Mach IV 68020 22.5-17.5 Rex 2.3 33MHz 1-0 Fritz1 386/33 6-4 +Diablo 68000 22.5-11.5 Mach III 32.5-6.5 Meph. MM 5 25.5-15.5 +Polgar 5 MHz 16-4 Roma 68000 15-5 Super Exp. C 28-9 +Academy 5 MHz 16.5-3.5 Meph. Mega IV 17-3 Kasp. GK-2000 2-0 +Travel Master 16.5-3.5 Mephisto MM 4 14-6 Psion Atari 17.5-6.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 14-6 Turboking II 17.5-2.5 Plym Victoria 18-2 +Super Exp. A 15.5-4.5 Rebell 5 MHz 16.5-3.5 Stratos 6 MHz 16.5-3.5 +Super Mondial 16.5-3.5 Plymate 5.5 19.5-0.5 Simultano C 17-3 +Excellence 4 17.5-2.5 Super Const. 17-3 + + 25 Mephisto MM 4 Turbo Kit 6502 16 MHz, 2091, (2122 vs humans, 9 games) +Mach IV 68020 16.5-14.5 Roma 68020 7.5-12.5 Mach III 13.5-6.5 +Dallas 68000 21.5-12.5 Roma 68000 14.5-5.5 Amsterdam 1-0 +Excel Mach 2c 4-0 Mephisto MM 4 1-0 Excel Mach 2a 16.5-3.5 +Excel Club 7-2 Super Exp. A 19.5-0.5 Stratos 6 MHz 18.5-1.5 +Forte B 18.5-1.5 Super Mondial 18.5-1.5 Plymate 5.5 16.5-4.5 +Excellence 4 17.5-2.5 + + 26 Mephisto Almeria 68020 12 MHz, 2088, (2030 vs humans, 26 games) +Mach IV 68020 13.5-14.5 Portor. 68000 5.5-6.5 Roma 68020 11.5-8.5 +Almeria 68000 3.5-2.5 Mach III 13-8 Roma 68000 3.5-2.5 +Academy 5 MHz 17.5-2.5 Maestro D 10 2-0 Mephisto MM 4 12.5-7.5 +Psion Atari 17.5-2.5 Sphinx Galaxy 3.5-0.5 Avant Garde 18-2 +Stratos 6 MHz 16.5-3.5 Simultano C 18.5-1.5 Superstar 36K 19-1 + + 27 Fidelity Mach IV 68020 20 MHz, 2080, (2177 vs humans, 19 games) +Roma 68020 24-13 Dallas 68020 13.5-6.5 Almeria 68000 11-9 +Mach III 4-4 Polgar 5 MHz 11.5-8.5 Dallas 68000 7.5-4.5 +Roma 68000 6.5-3.5 Super Exp. C 13-6 Academy 5 MHz 13.5-2.5 +Meph. Mega IV 16.5-3.5 Excel Mach 2c 13-2 Super Exp. B 9.5-2.5 +Travel Master 15-5 Mephisto MM 4 36-11 Psion Atari 17-3 +Sphinx Galaxy 16.5-5.5 Avant Garde 19-1 Par Excell. 15-5 +Rebell 5 MHz 17-6 Stratos 6 MHz 23.5-2.5 Super Mondial 15-2 +Plymate 5.5 36-8 Excellence 4 18.5-1.5 Superstar 36K 20-0 + + 28 Mephisto Portorose 68000 12 MHz, 2047 +Elite vers.5 19-15 Roma 68020 10-10 Mach III 15-10 +Meph. MM 5 11-9 Polgar 5 MHz 16-9 Dallas 68000 14-6 +Super Exp. C 21-8 Academy 5 MHz 20-14 Rex 2.3 20MHz 10.5-9.5 +Meph. Mega IV 14.5-5.5 Maestro D 10 18-9 Super Exp. B 13.5-6.5 +Mephisto MM 4 16-4 Psion Atari 21.5-7.5 Sphinx Galaxy 15-5 +Turboking II 17.5-1.5 Super Exp. A 17-3 Rebell 5 MHz 17.5-2.5 +Stratos 6 MHz 17-3 Super Mondial 14-6 Plymate 5.5 16.5-7.5 +Simultano C 16.5-3.5 Excellence 4 19-1 Super Const. 3-1 +Super VIP 15.5-4.5 Elite A/S 3.2 18-2 + + 29 Kasparov Brute Force H8 10 MHz, 2044 +Meph. MM 5 9.5-2.5 Excel Mach 2c 13-7 Super Const. 5.5-2.5 + + 30 Mephisto Polgar 6502 10 MHz, 2041 +Elite vers.5 13-9 Mach III 21-23 Dallas 68000 14-3 +Roma 68000 14-6 Super Exp. C 15-16 Amsterdam 13-7 +Excel Mach 2c 15-5 Maestro D 10 13-5 Psion Atari 14-6 +Avant Garde 0.5-0.5 Plymate 5.5 16.5-3.5 + + 31 Fidelity Elite 68000 x 2 (vers. 5), 2036 +Almeria 68000 5-5 Dallas 68000 12.5-7.5 Roma 68000 11-9 +Academy 5 MHz 12.5-7.5 Maestro D 10 16-6 Psion Atari 13.5-6.5 +Avant Garde 18.5-2.5 + + 32 Rex Chess 2.3 80386 25-33 MHz, 2030 +Zark25 386/33 0.5-1.5 Mach III 6.5-5.5 Meph. MM 5 1-1 +Polgar 5 MHz 13.5-6.5 Roma 68000 7.5-2.5 Academy 5 MHz 12-8 +Turbostar 432 7-0 Super Const. 18-2 + + 33 Mephisto Roma 68020 14 MHz, 2029, (1979 vs humans, 9 games) +Fritz1 486/33 0-2 Almeria 68000 11-9 Mach III 20.5-19.5 +Dallas 68000 13.5-6.5 Roma 68000 10.5-9.5 Academy 5 MHz 15-6 +Rex 2.3 20MHz 24-5 Amsterdam 11.5-8.5 Meph. Mega IV 14-6 +Excel Mach 2c 26.5-23.5 Maestro D 10 11-9 Mephisto MM 4 14.5-5.5 +Psion Atari 5-1 Sphinx Galaxy 16.5-3.5 Excel Club 16.5-3.5 +Avant Garde 15.5-4.5 Super Exp. A 14.5-5.5 Rebell 5 MHz 9.5-2.5 +Stratos 6 MHz 18-2 Forte B 13.5-6.5 Super Mondial 16.5-3.5 +Plymate 5.5 17.5-2.5 Maestro A 6 15-5 Excellence 4 17.5-2.5 +Expert 4 MHz 14.5-5.5 Excellence 3 17.5-2.5 Super Const. 19-1 +Elite A/S 3.2 18.5-1.5 + + 34 Fritz 1.0 80486 33 MHz, 2021 +Super Exp. C 9.5-10.5 Academy 5 MHz 12-8 Meph. Mega IV 7-3 +Sphinx Galaxy 16.5-3.5 Stratos 6 MHz 14.5-5.5 + + 35 Mephisto Dallas 68020 14 MHz, 2020 +Mach III 10.5-9.5 Dallas 68000 13-7 Super Exp. C 1-2 +Amsterdam 26.5-13.5 Meph. Mega IV 12-8 Excel Mach 2c 15-9 +Mephisto MM 4 14.5-5.5 Excel Mach 2a 14-6 Excel Club 21-8 +Avant Garde 23-8 Par Excell. 16.5-3.5 Rebell 5 MHz 15-5 +Forte B 15.5-4.5 Super Mondial 19-4 Plymate 5.5 17.5-2.5 +Maestro A 6 16.5-4.5 Forte A 16.5-7.5 Excellence 4 16.5-3.5 +Expert 4 MHz 20-6 Turbostar 432 14-6 Excellence 3 28.5-2.5 + + 36 Mephisto Almeria 68000 12 MHz, 2019 +Mach III 21.5-13.5 Polgar 5 MHz 10.5-9.5 Dallas 68000 10.5-9.5 +Roma 68000 10.5-5.5 Academy 5 MHz 11-9 Amsterdam 12-8 +Meph. Mega IV 13-11 Mephisto MM 4 9-2 Psion Atari 20.5-6.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 11.5-5.5 Super Exp. A 14.5-5.5 Par Excell. 8.5-1.5 +Rebell 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 Stratos 6 MHz 20.5-6.5 Plymate 5.5 16.5-3.5 +Simultano C 16.5-3.5 Excellence 4 18.5-1.5 Excellence 3 18-2 +Super Const. 17.5-2.5 Elite A/S 3.2 17.5-2.5 Superstar 36K 20.5-3.5 +Conchess 2MHz 6.5-0.5 + + 37 Zarkov 2.5 80386 25-33 MHz, 2018 +Mach III 12-7 Meph. MM 5 7-5 Polgar 5 MHz 3.5-2.5 +Super Exp. C 6.5-7.5 Academy 5 MHz 10.5-9.5 Super Exp. B 8-2 +Sphinx Galaxy 15.5-4.5 Plym Victoria 4-2 Plymate 5.5 3.5-0.5 +Maestro A 6 9-5 Expert 4 MHz 4-0 Super Const. 1-0 +Chesscard 5 8.5-1.5 + + 38 Fritz 1.0 80386 25-33 MHz, 2009 +Mach III 11.5-8.5 Meph. MM 5 3-1 Polgar 5 MHz 1.5-1.5 +Super Exp. C 6.5-5.5 CM3000 386/33 1.5-0.5 Turboking II 4-1 +Plym Victoria 8-2 + + 39 Novag Diablo 68000 16 MHz, 2001, (1975 vs humans, 9 games) +Mach III 10-10 Meph. MM 5 10-10 Polgar 5 MHz 12.5-7.5 +Roma 68000 11.5-8.5 Meph. Milano 10-10 Super Exp. C 15-5 +Academy 5 MHz 12.5-7.5 Meph. Mega IV 12-8 Kasp. GK-2000 14.5-5.5 +Mephisto MM 4 12-8 Psion Atari 15-9 Sphinx Galaxy 15-7 +Turboking II 15.5-4.5 Plym Victoria 13.5-6.5 Super Exp. A 14.5-5.5 +Rebell 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 Stratos 6 MHz 15-5 Super Mondial 14.5-5.5 +Plymate 5.5 16.5-3.5 Simultano C 15-5 Excellence 4 4-0 +Kasp. Blitz 16.5-3.5 Elite A/S 3.2 18.5-1.5 Superstar 36K 19-1 + + 40 Fidelity Mach III 68000 16 MHz, 1997, (2067 vs humans, 25 games) +Meph. MM 5 13.5-11.5 Polgar 5 MHz 60.5-51.5 Dallas 68000 11-9 +Roma 68000 131.5-90.5 Super Exp. C 40-37 Academy 5 MHz 22.5-14.5 +Rex 2.3 20MHz 5-1 Amsterdam 4-3 Meph. Mega IV 23-19 +Excel Mach 2c 23-12 Maestro D 10 21.5-14.5 Super Exp. B 10-8 +Travel Master 2-1 Mephisto MM 4 22-16 Psion Atari 27.5-11.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 18-16 Turboking II 19.5-7.5 Plym Victoria 14-6 +Excel Club 15.5-4.5 Mega IV BF 16.5-3.5 Avant Garde 17.5-3.5 +Super Exp. A 15-5 Par Excell. 29.5-8.5 Rebell 5 MHz 26.5-6.5 +Stratos 6 MHz 31.5-4.5 Forte B 19.5-5.5 Super Mondial 18-3 +Plymate 5.5 34-8 Maestro A 6 2.5-1.5 Forte A 15-5 +Simultano C 18-4 Excellence 4 28-6 Expert 4 MHz 15.5-4.5 +Excellence 3 17-3 Super Nova 18-3 Super Const. 48-11 +Chesspl. 2150 6-0 Meph. Europa 1.5-1.5 Elite A/S 3.2 18.5-1.5 +Cmaster 2100 16-4 Superstar 36K 16.5-3.5 Champion 2175 1-1 +Conchess 2MHz 18.5-1.5 + + 41 Mephisto MM 5 6502 5 MHz, 1979, (1757 vs humans, 6 games) +Polgar 5 MHz 34-34 Roma 68000 11-9 Meph. Milano 10.5-9.5 +Super Exp. C 12.5-7.5 Academy 5 MHz 11-9 Meph. Mega IV 13-7 +Mephisto MM 4 12.5-7.5 Meph. Modena 13.5-6.5 Psion Atari 13.5-6.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 27.5-14.5 Turboking II 14-6 Plym Victoria 16-4 +Excel Club 8-4 Avant Garde 15.5-4.5 Super Exp. A 15-5 +Rebell 5 MHz 14.5-5.5 Stratos 6 MHz 20.5-7.5 Super Mondial 15.5-5.5 +Plymate 5.5 27-15 Simultano C 15.5-4.5 Excellence 4 17-3 +Super Const. 17.5-2.5 Elite A/S 3.2 14.5-5.5 Superstar 36K 17-3 +Conchess 2MHz 14.5-5.5 Cmaster 2000 16.5-3.5 + + 42 Mephisto Polgar 6502 5 MHz, 1971 +Dallas 68000 9-11 Roma 68000 8-14 Meph. Milano 10-10 +Super Exp. C 9.5-10.5 Academy 5 MHz 11.5-10.5 Rex 2.3 20MHz 5.5-6.5 +Amsterdam 4.5-4.5 Meph. Mega IV 14.5-5.5 Maestro D 10 22.5-17.5 +Super Exp. B 10-10 Travel Master 10.5-9.5 Mephisto MM 4 33.5-9.5 +Psion Atari 26-6 Sphinx Galaxy 15-9 Avant Garde 17.5-2.5 +Super Exp. A 20.5-17.5 Rebell 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 Stratos 6 MHz 14-6 +Super Mondial 16-4 Plymate 5.5 27.5-4.5 Simultano C 15.5-4.5 +Excellence 4 13.5-6.5 Super Nova 17.5-2.5 Super Const. 19-1 +Chesscard 5 18-2 Elite A/S 3.2 3-2 Conchess 2MHz 19-1 +Cmaster 2000 20-4 + + 43 Mephisto Dallas 68000 12 MHz, 1971, (1866 vs humans, 15 games) +Amsterdam 15.5-14.5 Meph. Mega IV 14.5-9.5 Excel Mach 2c 14.5-5.5 +Maestro D 10 3.5-2.5 Mephisto MM 4 42.5-26.5 Psion Atari 14-6 +Sphinx Galaxy 13.5-6.5 Excel Mach 2a 13.5-6.5 Excel Club 13.5-6.5 +Avant Garde 11.5-8.5 Super Exp. A 17.5-5.5 Par Excell. 40.5-18.5 +Rebell 5 MHz 15.5-4.5 Stratos 6 MHz 18.5-1.5 Forte B 59-23 +Super Mondial 19.5-4.5 Plymate 5.5 33-4 Maestro A 6 13.5-6.5 +Forte A 14.5-5.5 Excellence 4 20-7 Expert 4 MHz 38.5-11.5 +Turbostar 432 27.5-7.5 Excellence 3 16.5-3.5 Super Const. 59-11 +Superstar 36K 18-2 Conchess 2MHz 15-5 Quattro 4 MHz 15.5-4.5 + + 44 Mephisto Roma 68000 12 MHz, 1967 +Super Exp. C 16.5-21.5 Academy 5 MHz 11.5-8.5 Rex 2.3 20MHz 3.5-7.5 +Maestro B 18 0.5-2.5 Meph. Mega IV 17-6 Excel Mach 2c 20.5-19.5 +Super Exp. B 4-3 Kasp. GK-2000 13.5-6.5 Mephisto MM 4 19-9 +Psion Atari 27-8 Sphinx Galaxy 13-8 Excel Mach 2a 12-12 +Turboking II 12.5-7.5 Plym Victoria 13-7 Excel Club 16-4 +Mega IV BF 14-6 Avant Garde 20.5-6.5 Super Exp. A 19-5 +Par Excell. 25.5-3.5 Rebell 5 MHz 16.5-4.5 Stratos 6 MHz 36-26 +Forte B 45-15 Super Mondial 14.5-6.5 Plymate 5.5 13-7 +Maestro A 6 17.5-2.5 Forte A 7-1 Simultano C 11.5-5.5 +Excellence 4 17-3 Expert 4 MHz 1-1 Turbostar 432 17.5-4.5 +Excellence 3 36-9 Super Const. 56.5-7.5 Superstar 36K 19-1 +Conchess 2MHz 17.5-2.5 Quattro 4 MHz 18.5-1.5 Cmaster 2000 3.5-0.5 + + 45 Zarkov 2.6 386/25-33 MHz, 1966 +Super Exp. B 6.5-3.5 Kasp. GK-2000 12-8 Plym Victoria 4-3 +Par Excell. 4.5-2.5 Super Mondial 1-0 Chesscard 5 7-1 + + 46 Mephisto Milano 6502 5 MHz, 1955 +Super Exp. C 8.5-11.5 Meph. Mega IV 15.5-14.5 Kasp. GK-2000 7.5-3.5 +Mephisto MM 4 13.5-6.5 Meph. Modena 11-9 Psion Atari 15.5-4.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 7.5-1.5 Plym Victoria 12.5-7.5 Super Exp. A 15-5 +Stratos 6 MHz 12.5-7.5 Super Mondial 16-4 Plymate 5.5 12-8 +Simultano C 14-6 Elite A/S 3.2 17.5-2.5 + + 47 Novag Super Expert C 6502 6 MHz Sel 5, 1954, (1996 vs humans, 15 games) +Academy 5 MHz 12-8 Rex 2.3 20MHz 0.5-0.5 Meph. Mega IV 11.5-10.5 +Excel Mach 2c 19-11 Maestro D 10 8.5-11.5 Mephisto MM 4 11.5-7.5 +Meph. Modena 13-7 Psion Atari 14.5-5.5 Sphinx Galaxy 21-12 +Turboking II 11-9 Plym Victoria 11-9 Excel Club 11-5 +Avant Garde 13-7 Super Exp. A 10.5-9.5 Rebell 5 MHz 10.5-11.5 +Stratos 6 MHz 13.5-6.5 Super Mondial 15.5-4.5 Plymate 5.5 8.5-11.5 +Simultano C 13-7 Excellence 4 14.5-5.5 Expert 4 MHz 15-5 +Excellence 3 6-4 Super Nova 16-4 Super Const. 36.5-9.5 +Elite A/S 3.2 13.5-6.5 Superstar 36K 18.5-1.5 Conchess 2MHz 15.5-4.5 +Cmaster 2000 19.5-1.5 Const. 2 MHz 9.5-0.5 + + 48 Mephisto Academy 6502 5 MHz, 1940, (2057 vs humans, 21 games) +Amsterdam 12-12 Meph. Mega IV 22-11 Excel Mach 2c 12.5-7.5 +Maestro D 10 17-23 Super Exp. B 14-6 Mephisto MM 4 5-3 +Psion Atari 14-6 Sphinx Galaxy 17.5-24.5 Turboking II 12-8 +Plym Victoria 13.5-6.5 Excel Club 21-19 Avant Garde 13-7 +Super Exp. A 15.5-8.5 Rebell 5 MHz 14.5-5.5 Stratos 6 MHz 12.5-7.5 +Super Mondial 12-8 Plymate 5.5 13.5-6.5 Forte A 12.5-7.5 +Simultano C 34-11 Excellence 4 16.5-3.5 Super Nova 14-6 +Conchess 4MHz 1-0 Elite A/S 3.2 14.5-5.5 Superstar 36K 16-4 +Champion 2175 16-4 Conchess 2MHz 6-0 Cmaster 2000 13-2 + + 49 Rex Chess 2.3 80386 16-20 MHz, 1928 +Super Exp. B 2-1 Mephisto MM 4 11-6 Sphinx Galaxy 24.5-15.5 +Excel Club 9.5-4.5 Simultano C 8-11 + + 50 Saitek Leonardo Maestro B 6502 18 MHz, 1925 +Meph. Mega IV 3.5-3.5 Psion Atari 7-5 Excel Club 12.5-7.5 +Rebell 5 MHz 12-8 Forte B 12.5-6.5 Plymate 5.5 15-9 + + 51 Mephisto Amsterdam 68000 12 MHz, 1924 +Meph. Mega IV 10-10 Excel Mach 2c 12.5-12.5 Expert 16 MHz 10.5-9.5 +Super Exp. B 1-2 Mephisto MM 4 12.5-9.5 Psion Atari 9.5-10.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 13-7 Excel Club 31-23 Avant Garde 96.5-58.5 +Super Exp. A 13-7 Par Excell. 28-12 Rebell 5 MHz 12.5-7.5 +Stratos 6 MHz 13-7 Forte B 11.5-8.5 Super Mondial 13-7 +Plymate 5.5 22-7 Maestro A 6 12.5-7.5 Forte A 41-24 +Excellence 4 15.5-4.5 Expert 4 MHz 5-3 Mephisto MM 2 9-1 +Turbostar 432 20-11 Excellence 3 17.5-4.5 Super Const. 62-16 +Mephisto B&P 3.5-0.5 Prestige 4MHz 3-0 Quattro 4 MHz 16.5-3.5 + + 52 Mephisto Mega IV 6502 4.9 MHz, 1916, (1866 vs humans, 28 games) +Excel Mach 2c 16.5-16.5 Maestro D 10 13-22 Super Exp. B 13-7 +Mephisto MM 4 9.5-10.5 Meph. Modena 12-8 Psion Atari 9-11 +Sphinx Galaxy 17-13 Turboking II 9-11 Plym Victoria 13.5-6.5 +Excel Club 11.5-8.5 Avant Garde 13.5-9.5 Super Exp. A 12-8 +Rebell 5 MHz 20-10 Stratos 6 MHz 12.5-7.5 Forte B 52-26 +Super Mondial 9.5-10.5 Plymate 5.5 17-5 Forte A 13.5-6.5 +Simultano C 30.5-4.5 Excellence 4 20.5-3.5 Expert 4 MHz 14.5-5.5 +Turbostar 432 15-5 Excellence 3 19-9 Super Nova 7.5-2.5 +Super Const. 14.5-5.5 Elite A/S 3.2 20.5-4.5 Superstar 36K 17-3 +Champion 2175 2-0 Quattro 4 MHz 9.5-0.5 Cmaster 2000 3-1 +Const. 2 MHz 18.5-0.5 + + 53 Fidelity Excel Mach IIc 68000 12 MHz, 1915 +Mephisto MM 4 13-15 Psion Atari 16.5-3.5 Sphinx Galaxy 13-7 +Excel Club 29-16 Avant Garde 15.5-6.5 Super Exp. A 21.5-20.5 +Par Excell. 6.5-3.5 Rebell 5 MHz 12-8 Stratos 6 MHz 14-6 +Forte B 16.5-3.5 Super Mondial 12.5-7.5 Plymate 5.5 22-10 +Forte A 27-13 Excellence 4 12-8 Expert 4 MHz 13.5-6.5 +Turbostar 432 17-3 Excellence 3 13-7 Super Const. 19.5-10.5 +Elite A/S 3.2 17-3 Superstar 36K 16.5-3.5 + + 54 Saitek Maestro D 6502 10 MHz, 1914, (1722 vs humans, 18 games) +Mephisto MM 4 14-26 Psion Atari 13-7 Sphinx Galaxy 22-18 +Super Exp. A 26.5-16.5 Rebell 5 MHz 24-13 Stratos 6 MHz 25.5-14.5 +Super Mondial 17.5-22.5 Plymate 5.5 23-17 Simultano C 15.5-4.5 +Excellence 4 13.5-6.5 Turbostar 432 2.5-0.5 Super Const. 14.5-5.5 +Elite A/S 3.2 16.5-3.5 Superstar 36K 17.5-2.5 + + 55 Novag Expert Turbo Kit 6502 16 MHz, 1906 +Avant Garde 12-8 Rebell 5 MHz 10.5-9.5 Super Mondial 11-9 +Plymate 5.5 14.5-5.5 Turbostar 432 16-4 + + 56 Novag Super Expert B 6502 6 MHz sel 4, 1904, (1892 vs humans, 9 games) +Mephisto MM 4 8-12 CM3000 386/33 1-3 Psion Atari 10.5-9.5 +Sphinx Galaxy 14-6 Avant Garde 0.5-0.5 Super Exp. A 13-7 +Rebell 5 MHz 10.5-9.5 Stratos 6 MHz 13.5-6.5 Super Mondial 13-7 +Plymate 5.5 15-5 Simultano C 21.5-9.5 Excellence 4 11-9 +Excellence 3 3.5-1.5 Chesscard 5 8.5-1.5 Super VIP 15.5-4.5 +Elite A/S 3.2 13-7 Conchess 2MHz 4-1 Const. 2 MHz 1-0 + + 57 Kasparov GK-2000 H8 10 MHz, 1904 +Meph. Modena 12.5-7.5 Psion Atari 14-6 Turboking II 11-9 +Rebell 5 MHz 12-8 Chesspl. 2150 14-6 + + 59 Mephisto MM 4 6502 5 MHz, 1901 +Psion Atari 19.5-16.5 Sphinx Galaxy 11-9 Excel Mach 2a 12.5-7.5 +Turboking II 5.5-4.5 Plym Victoria 10-10 Excel Club 11-10 +Avant Garde 12-10 Super Exp. A 31-13 Par Excell. 12.5-7.5 +Rebell 5 MHz 16-4 Stratos 6 MHz 18-9 Forte B 14.5-5.5 +Super Mondial 13-7 Plymate 5.5 28.5-11.5 Maestro A 6 12-8 +Forte A 13.5-6.5 Simultano C 11.5-8.5 Excellence 4 11.5-8.5 +Expert 4 MHz 13.5-6.5 Turbostar 432 13.5-6.5 Excellence 3 16.5-3.5 +Super Const. 17-3 Mephisto B&P 6.5-3.5 Elite A/S 3.2 17-3 +Superstar 36K 13.5-6.5 Quattro 4 MHz 14.5-5.5 Cmaster 2000 15.5-1.5 +Super Enterp. 21-5 Turbo S 24K 4-0 + + 60 Chessmaster 3000 386/25-33 MHz, 1900 +Super Mondial 2-2 Chesscard 5 8-4 + + 61 Mephisto Modena 6502 4 MHz, 1886 +Mega IV BF 2.5-2.5 Super Mondial 13-7 Plymate 5.5 14-6 +Simultano C 10.5-9.5 Meph. Europa 15.5-4.5 Elite A/S 3.2 17-3 + + 62 Psion Atari 68000 8 MHz, 1880, (1947 vs humans, 5 games) +Sphinx Galaxy 10-10 Excel Mach 2a 13.5-6.5 Turboking II 9-12 +Plym Victoria 15-5 Excel Club 32.5-18.5 Avant Garde 13.5-7.5 +Super Exp. A 13.5-11.5 Par Excell. 12.5-7.5 Rebell 5 MHz 19-8 +Stratos 6 MHz 16-20 Forte B 13-7 Super Mondial 15-5 +Plymate 5.5 13-9 Maestro A 6 18-14 Forte A 10.5-9.5 +Excellence 4 19.5-9.5 Expert 4 MHz 20-9 Turbostar 432 14.5-5.5 +Excellence 3 22.5-9.5 Kasp. Blitz 14-6 Super Const. 19-4 +Chesspl. 2150 9-6 Mephisto B&P 3-1 Chesscard 5 8-5 +Super VIP 10-0 Superstar 36K 17-3 Champion 2175 6.5-0.5 +Conchess 2MHz 15.5-4.5 Quattro 4 MHz 15.5-4.5 Cmaster 2000 2-0 +Const. 2 MHz 1-0 Super Enterp. 18.5-1.5 + + 63 CXG Sphinx Galaxy 6502 4 MHz, 1875, (1999 vs humans, 28 games) +Turboking II 8-12 Plym Victoria 11.5-8.5 Mega IV BF 4.5-2.5 +Avant Garde 12-8 Rebell 5 MHz 10-10 Stratos 6 MHz 27-12 +Super Mondial 17-3 Plymate 5.5 11.5-8.5 Maestro A 6 1.5-1.5 +Forte A 4.5-3.5 Simultano C 35.5-24.5 Excellence 4 3.5-1.5 +Expert 4 MHz 10.5-9.5 Excellence 3 8-4 Kasp. Blitz 11.5-8.5 +Chesspl. 2150 13.5-6.5 Super VIP 5-0 Elite A/S 3.2 17-3 +Cmaster 2100 15-5 Champion 2175 8.5-11.5 Conchess 2MHz 23.5-9.5 +Const. 3.6MHz 12.5-5.5 Super Enterp. 3-0 + + 64 Fidelity Excel Mach IIa 68000 12 MHz, 1875 +Avant Garde 9.5-10.5 Rebell 5 MHz 12.5-7.5 Plymate 5.5 14-8 +Maestro A 6 15-5 Excellence 3 13.5-6.5 + + 65 Saitek Turboking II 6502 5 MHz, 1872 +Plym Victoria 10.5-9.5 Super Exp. A 12.5-7.5 Rebell 5 MHz 10-10 +Stratos 6 MHz 12.5-7.5 Super Mondial 10.5-9.5 Plymate 5.5 12-8 +Simultano C 12.5-7.5 Excellence 4 10.5-9.5 Super Nova 12-8 +Super Const. 15-5 Elite A/S 3.2 13-7 Cmaster 2100 15-5 +Superstar 36K 16-4 Champion 2175 16.5-3.5 Cmaster 2000 15.5-4.5 + + 66 Conchess Plymate Victoria 6502 5.5 MHz, 1862, (1841 vs humans, 7 games) +Mega IV BF 9.5-10.5 Super Exp. A 11.5-8.5 Rebell 5 MHz 11-9 +Stratos 6 MHz 10-10 Super Mondial 11-9 Plymate 5.5 14-6 +Maestro A 6 7-3 Simultano C 11-9 Excellence 4 0.5-0.5 +Chesscard 5 16.5-3.5 Elite A/S 3.2 18.5-1.5 Superstar 36K 14.5-5.5 +Cmaster 2000 17-3 + + 67 Fidelity Excel Club 68000 12 MHz, 1854, (1774 vs humans, 6 games) +Avant Garde 27-23 Super Exp. A 11-15 Rebell 5 MHz 11.5-8.5 +Stratos 6 MHz 13.5-6.5 Forte B 10.5-9.5 Super Mondial 10-10 +Plymate 5.5 18-6 Maestro A 6 13.5-6.5 Forte A 31.5-18.5 +Excellence 4 16-10 Expert 4 MHz 18-6 Turbostar 432 47.5-31.5 +Excellence 3 15-5 Super Const. 12.5-7.5 Elite A/S 3.2 17.5-2.5 +Superstar 36K 13.5-6.5 Conchess 2MHz 15-5 Quattro 4 MHz 14.5-5.5 +Cmaster 2000 7.5-3.5 Const. 2 MHz 2-0 Super Enterp. 7-1 + + 68 Mephisto Mega IV Brute Force, 1840 +Super Exp. A 8.5-11.5 Rebell 5 MHz 11-9 Stratos 6 MHz 6.5-13.5 +Super Mondial 12-8 Simultano C 11-9 Expert 4 MHz 8.5-3.5 +Super Const. 16.5-6.5 Elite A/S 3.2 22-3 + + 69 Fidelity Avant Garde 6502 5 MHz, 1832 +Super Exp. A 8.5-11.5 Par Excell. 20.5-20.5 Rebell 5 MHz 10-10 +Stratos 6 MHz 12-10 Forte B 11-9 Super Mondial 11-9 +Plymate 5.5 19-17 Maestro A 6 9-11 Forte A 21.5-17.5 +Excellence 4 13-7 Expert 4 MHz 50-35 Plymate 4 MHz 14.5-10.5 +Turbostar 432 20-9 Excellence 3 14-7 Super Const. 23.5-8.5 +Elite A/S 3.2 6-4 Superstar 36K 16-5 Conchess 2MHz 15.5-4.5 +Quattro 4 MHz 15.5-4.5 Cmaster 2000 15.5-4.5 Const. 2 MHz 18-2 + + 70 Novag Super Expert/Forte A 6502 5 MHz, 1831, (1718 vs humans, 9 games) +Rebell 5 MHz 10.5-9.5 Stratos 6 MHz 7-15 Super Mondial 8-12 +Plymate 5.5 12.5-27.5 Maestro A 6 10-10 Simultano C 10-10 +Excellence 4 32-30 Turbostar 432 15-5 Excellence 3 14-6 +Kasp. Blitz 14-6 Super Const. 14-6 Elite A/S 3.2 15.5-4.5 +Superstar 36K 19.5-5.5 Champion 2175 12-8 Conchess 2MHz 14-6 +Quattro 4 MHz 15.5-4.5 + + 71 Fidelity Par Excellence 6502 5 MHz, 1829 +Rebell 5 MHz 21-14 Forte B 15-7 Super Mondial 11.5-8.5 +Plymate 5.5 46.5-41.5 Maestro A 6 10-10 Forte A 47.5-37.5 +Excellence 4 17.5-12.5 Expert 4 MHz 19-15 Plymate 4 MHz 5.5-4.5 +Mephisto MM 2 10.5-9.5 Turbostar 432 12.5-7.5 Excellence 3 11.5-8.5 +Super Nova 8-2 Super Const. 44.5-25.5 Chesscard 5 2-4 +Elite A/S 3.2 16-4 Superstar 36K 16.5-3.5 Conchess 2MHz 16-4 +Quattro 4 MHz 16.5-3.5 Const. 3.6MHz 13-7 Turbo S 24K 7-1 + + 72 Mephisto Rebell 6502 5 MHz, 1821 +Stratos 6 MHz 12.5-7.5 Forte B 20.5-23.5 Super Mondial 13-7 +Plymate 5.5 12.5-8.5 Maestro A 6 13.5-8.5 Forte A 14-11 +Simultano C 11-13 Excellence 4 9.5-10.5 Expert 4 MHz 10-10 +Turbostar 432 10.5-9.5 Excellence 3 14-6 Super Nova 14.5-10.5 +Super Const. 10.5-9.5 Chesspl. 2150 14-6 Mephisto B&P 2-0 +Meph. Europa 5-1 Elite A/S 3.2 12-8 Superstar 36K 14.5-5.5 +Conchess 2MHz 13.5-6.5 Quattro 4 MHz 13.5-6.5 + + 73 Saitek Stratos/Analys B 6502 6 MHz, 1817 +Forte B 8-12 Super Mondial 11-9 Plymate 5.5 8.5-11.5 +Forte A 3-0 Simultano C 10-10 Excellence 4 11-10 +Expert 4 MHz 6-14 Turbostar 432 7.5-4.5 Excellence 3 14-7 +Kasp. Blitz 9-3 Super Nova 14-6 Super Const. 13-7 +Chesscard 5 2-1 Meph. Europa 2-1 Super VIP 9.5-10.5 +Elite A/S 3.2 14-6 Superstar 36K 11-9 Conchess 2MHz 4-0 +Quattro 4 MHz 16-4 Cmaster 2000 14.5-5.5 Const. 2 MHz 6-3 + + 74 Novag Forte B 6502 5 MHz, 1813, (1861 vs humans, 28 games) +Super Mondial 11.5-8.5 Plymate 5.5 25-24 Maestro A 6 9.5-10.5 +Excellence 4 14.5-11.5 Expert 4 MHz 0.5-2.5 Elegance 3.6 3-2 +Turbostar 432 12.5-7.5 Excellence 3 14-6 Super Nova 1.5-0.5 +Super Const. 11-9 Meph. Europa 15.5-4.5 Elite A/S 3.2 14.5-5.5 +Superstar 36K 13-7 Conchess 2MHz 30.5-11.5 Quattro 4 MHz 16.5-3.5 + + 75 Mephisto Super Mondial 6502 4 MHz, 1812 +Plymate 5.5 11.5-16.5 Maestro A 6 11-9 Forte A 8-12 +Simultano C 14.5-5.5 Excellence 4 7.5-12.5 Expert 4 MHz 12-8 +Turbostar 432 8.5-11.5 Excellence 3 9-11 Kasp. Blitz 10-10 +Super Const. 10-10 Chesspl. 2150 15-5 Chesscard 5 15-5 +Elite A/S 3.2 14-6 Cmaster 2100 15.5-4.5 Superstar 36K 14-6 +Conchess 2MHz 16-4 Quattro 4 MHz 15.5-4.5 + + 76 Conchess Glasgow 6 MHz, 1812 +Super Const. 3.5-1.5 Elite A/S 3.2 8.5-3.5 Const. 2 MHz 9-3 +Mephisto III6 11-1 + + 77 Conchess Plymate 6502 5.5 MHz, 1808 +Maestro A 6 14-17 Forte A 47-47 Simultano C 8-11 +Excellence 4 113.5-96.5 Expert 4 MHz 13-9 Mephisto MM 2 2-0 +Elegance 3.6 5.5-4.5 Turbostar 432 20.5-14.5 Excellence 3 14.5-14.5 +Super Nova 9.5-10.5 Super Const. 24.5-7.5 Super VIP 12-8 +Elite A/S 3.2 12.5-7.5 Superstar 36K 11-9 Champion 2175 4-0 +Prestige 4MHz 4-1 Conchess 2MHz 15.5-4.5 Quattro 4 MHz 11-9 +Cmaster 2000 20.5-4.5 Const. 3.6MHz 21.5-4.5 Const. 2 MHz 14.5-5.5 +Sargon III 1M 1-0 Super Enterp. 18.5-1.5 + + 78 Saitek Leonardo Maestro A 6502 6 MHz, 1807, (1896 vs humans, 9 games) +Forte A 8-13 Excellence 4 13-9 Turbostar 432 11-10 +Excellence 3 10.5-9.5 Super Const. 13-7 Superstar 36K 14.5-5.5 +Conchess 2MHz 16-4 Quattro 4 MHz 13-7 Cmaster 2000 1-0 + + 79 Novag Forte A 6502 5 MHz, 1806 +Excellence 4 21.5-29.5 Plymate 4 MHz 7-3 Mephisto MM 2 10.5-9.5 +Elegance 3.6 8.5-11.5 Turbostar 432 19.5-14.5 Excellence 3 10.5-12.5 +Super Const. 21.5-11.5 Elite A/S 3.2 16.5-3.5 Superstar 36K 15.5-4.5 +Conchess 2MHz 13-7 Quattro 4 MHz 18-4 Cmaster 2000 3.5-2.5 +Const. 3.6MHz 16-4 Const. 2 MHz 15-3 Super Enterp. 16.5-3.5 + + 80 Saitek Simultano/Corona C 6502 5 MHz, 1806 +Excellence 4 14.5-10.5 Kasp. Blitz 11-9 Super Nova 6.5-3.5 +Meph. Europa 2-0 Elite A/S 3.2 22.5-17.5 Cmaster 2100 14-6 +Superstar 36K 11.5-3.5 + + 81 Fidelity Excellence 6502 4 MHz, 1798 +Expert 4 MHz 24-22 Plymate 4 MHz 15-14 Mephisto MM 2 12-8 +Turbostar 432 39-39 Excellence 3 12.5-7.5 Kasp. Blitz 13-7 +Super Nova 12.5-7.5 Super Const. 20.5-9.5 Conchess 4MHz 17-7 +Mephisto B&P 0.5-2.5 Super VIP 15.5-4.5 Elite A/S 3.2 13-7 +Superstar 36K 12.5-8.5 Champion 2175 16-4 Conchess 2MHz 17-3 +Quattro 4 MHz 13-7 Cmaster 2000 17.5-2.5 Const. 3.6MHz 24-4 +Const. Primo 5.5-2.5 Const. 2 MHz 2-0 + + 82 Novag Expert 6502 4 MHz, 1784 +Plymate 4 MHz 5.5-14.5 Mephisto MM 2 4-6 Elegance 3.6 11.5-8.5 +Turbostar 432 11-9 Excellence 3 22-13 Super Nova 5.5-5.5 +Super Const. 16.5-12.5 Conchess 4MHz 4.5-2.5 Chesspl. 2150 1.5-1.5 +Mephisto B&P 2-0 Superstar 36K 11-9 Conchess 2MHz 14-6 +Quattro 4 MHz 3-1 Const. 3.6MHz 13.5-6.5 Const. Primo 10.5-2.5 +Super Enterp. 10-1 + + 83 Conchess Plymate 6502 4 MHz, 1775 +Elegance 3.6 25-22 Turbostar 432 9.5-10.5 Excellence 3 11.5-8.5 +Super Const. 38.5-27.5 Elite A/S 3.2 10-10 Superstar 36K 13-7 +Meph. Excl. S 7.5-2.5 Conchess 2MHz 11-9 Const. 3.6MHz 16.5-9.5 + + 84 Mephisto MM 2 6502 3.7 MHz, 1769 +Turbostar 432 16.5-19.5 Excellence 3 7.5-8.5 Super Const. 8.5-6.5 +Elite A/S 3.2 9-5 Superstar 36K 15.5-4.5 Const. 3.6MHz 14-6 +Const. 2 MHz 4-1 + + 85 Fidelity Elegance 6502 3.6 MHz, 1761 +Turbostar 432 16.5-13.5 Excellence 3 0.5-1.5 Super Const. 9-8 +Conchess 4MHz 28.5-23.5 Elite A/S 3.2 11.5-3.5 Meph. Excl. S 8-5 +Conchess 2MHz 7.5-4.5 Const. 3.6MHz 17.5-6.5 Const. 2 MHz 14-6 +Super Enterp. 10.5-1.5 Sensory 9 A 3.5-0.5 Steinitz 3-1 +Mephisto IIIM 4-0 Mephisto II 6 4-0 Chess 2001 2.5-1.5 +Scisys supers 4-0 Mephisto III6 3.5-0.5 Conchess -82 2.5-1.5 +Mark VI 3.5-0.5 Morphy 3-1 + + 86 Saitek Turbostar 432 6502 4 MHz, 1759 +Excellence 3 13-12 Super Const. 31.5-29.5 Conchess 4MHz 10-9 +Mephisto B&P 17.5-9.5 Elite A/S 3.2 15-5 Superstar 36K 10-10 +Meph. Excl. S 3-2 Prestige 4MHz 7-4 Conchess 2MHz 12-8 +Quattro 4 MHz 12-8 Const. 3.6MHz 14.5-7.5 Const. 2 MHz 18-7 +Sargon III 1M 1.5-0.5 Super Enterp. 17-3 Scisys supers 0-1 +Mephisto III6 18.5-1.5 Turbo S 24K 2-1 GMC 1-0 + + 87 Fidelity Excellence 6502 3 MHz, 1753, (1578 vs humans, 5 games) +Super Nova 0-1 Super Const. 30.5-21.5 Conchess 4MHz 14.5-10.5 +Mephisto B&P 4-5 Super VIP 6.5-2.5 Elite A/S 3.2 14.5-5.5 +Superstar 36K 13.5-6.5 Conchess 2MHz 15.5-11.5 Quattro 4 MHz 15-5 +Const. 3.6MHz 21-11 Const. Primo 15-5 Const. 2 MHz 22-4 +Sargon III 1M 1-1 Super Enterp. 14-8 + + 88 Saitek Kasparov Blitz, 1736 +Super Nova 9.5-10.5 Super Enterp. 21-9 + + 89 Novag Super Nova, 1732 +Super Const. 10.5-9.5 Meph. Europa 11-9 Conchess 2MHz 13-7 +Const. 2 MHz 13-7 Super Enterp. 10.5-9.5 + + 90 Novag Super Constellation 6502 4 MHz, 1728, (1555 vs humans, 9 games) +Conchess 4MHz 46-44 Chesspl. 2150 1-0 Mephisto B&P 9.5-7.5 +Chesscard 5 13.5-7.5 Super VIP 5-5 Elite A/S 3.2 10-3 +Superstar 36K 11.5-9.5 Champion 2175 13.5-6.5 Meph. Excl. S 10.5-5.5 +Prestige 4MHz 9.5-10.5 Conchess 2MHz 12.5-11.5 Quattro 4 MHz 14.5-5.5 +Const. 3.6MHz 19.5-5.5 Const. Primo 0.5-0.5 Const. 2 MHz 26-11 +Sargon III 1M 9-3 Meph. Mondial 10-4 Super Enterp. 10.5-1.5 +Sensory 9 A 4.5-1.5 Steinitz 4-0 Mephisto IIIM 16-1 +Mephisto II 6 4-0 Chess 2001 2.5-1.5 Scisys supers 3.5-1.5 +Mephisto III6 21-5 Conchess -82 3-1 GMC 4.5-0.5 +Mark VI 4-0 Mark V 9.5-0.5 Morphy 4-0 + + 91 Conchess Glasgow 6502 4 MHz, 1712 +Elite A/S 3.2 8.5-6.5 Superstar 36K 6-8 Meph. Excl. S 6-7 +Prestige 4MHz 27-12 Const. 3.6MHz 10.5-9.5 Const. 2 MHz 8.5-2.5 +Super Enterp. 5.5-4.5 Scisys supers 1-0 GMC 1-0 + + 92 Chessplayer 2150 Atari/Amiga, 1709 +Conchess 2MHz 11.5-8.5 Const. Primo 0-1 + + 94 The Final Chesscard 6502 5 MHz, 1695 +Const. 2 MHz 5.5-0.5 + + 95 Mephisto Europa, 1685 +Elite A/S 3.2 10.5-9.5 Superstar 36K 9.5-10.5 Conchess 2MHz 13.5-6.5 +Const. 2 MHz 7.5-6.5 Super Enterp. 14-6 + + 96 Novag Super VIP, 1684 +Elite A/S 3.2 12-8 Conchess 2MHz 5-15 + + 97 Fidelity Elite A/S 6502 3.2 MHz, 1677 +Superstar 36K 11.5-8.5 Meph. Excl. S 1.5-1.5 Conchess 2MHz 11.5-8.5 +Quattro 4 MHz 11.5-8.5 Const. 3.6MHz 12.5-16.5 Const. Primo 11-9 +Const. 2 MHz 7-5 Sensory 9 B 3-1 Sensory 9 A 41-13 +Steinitz 28-9 Mephisto IIIM 7-3 Mephisto II 6 11.5-3.5 +Chess 2001 9.5-0.5 Scisys supers 11.5-1.5 Mephisto III6 17.5-3.5 +Turbo S 24K 15-5 Conchess -82 7-1 GMC 1-0 +Mark VI 7-1 Morphy 8.5-0.5 Boris 2.5 0-1 + + 99 Saitek Superstar 36K 6502 2 MHz, 1675 +Conchess 2MHz 11.5-8.5 Quattro 4 MHz 11.5-11.5 Cmaster 2000 9.5-10.5 +Const. 3.6MHz 16.5-13.5 Const. Primo 9.5-10.5 Const. 2 MHz 11-9 +Meph. Mondial 10.5-9.5 Turbo 16K 15-5 Mephisto III6 2.5-1.5 + + 100 Chess Champion 2175 Atari/Amiga, 1670 +Conchess 2MHz 7.5-12.5 Cmaster 2000 0.5-1.5 + + 101 Mephisto Exclusive S, 1670 +Conchess 2MHz 2-2 Const. 3.6MHz 8.5-6.5 Scisys supers 1-0 +GMC 1-0 + + 102 Fidelity Prestige 6502 4 MHz, 1665 +Conchess 2MHz 3.5-3.5 Const. 3.6MHz 5-5 Elite -81 11-11 +Const. 2 MHz 15.5-6.5 Sensory 9 B 8-4 Sensory 9 A 28-6 +Steinitz 10.5-3.5 Mephisto II 6 52-12 Chess 2001 2-0 +Scisys supers 8.5-3.5 Mephisto III6 2-0 Conchess -82 14-4 +Champion chal 4.5-2.5 Mark VI 23-1 Mark V 8.5-1.5 +Morphy 3-0 + + 103 Conchess Glasgow 6502 2 MHz, 1663 +Quattro 4 MHz 7-13 Cmaster 2000 8-12 Const. 3.6MHz 8.5-13.5 +Const. Primo 11.5-8.5 Const. 2 MHz 12.5-7.5 Meph. Mondial 1.5-4.5 +Super Enterp. 12.5-7.5 Mephisto IIIM 1.5-0.5 Turbo S 24K 16-4 +GMC 2-0 + + 104 Novag Quattro 6502 4 MHz, 1659 +Cmaster 2000 9-11 Const. 3.6MHz 12-8 Const. Primo 11-9 +Super Enterp. 14.5-6.5 + + 106 Novag Constellation 6502 3.6 MHz, 1644 +Const. 2 MHz 20-14 Meph. Mondial 9.5-6.5 Super Enterp. 1-1 +Sensory 9 B 1-1 Sensory 9 A 3-1 Steinitz 2.5-1.5 +Mephisto IIIM 21.5-8.5 Mephisto II 6 4-0 Turbo 16K 16-4 +Chess 2001 5.5-0.5 Scisys supers 8.5-0.5 Turbo S 24K 15-5 +Conchess -82 4-0 GMC 4.5-1.5 Mark VI 4-0 +Morphy 3.5-0.5 + + 107 Novag Constellation Primo, 1634 +Const. 2 MHz 3.5-2.5 Super Enterp. 13-7 + + 108 Fidelity Elite -81, 1604 +Const. 2 MHz 4-6 Sensory 9 A 11-5 Steinitz 1-1 +Mephisto II 6 21.5-10.5 Conchess -82 11-3 GMC 13-1 +Mephisto II 3 9-1 Champion chal 11.5-3.5 Mark VI 1-1 +Mark V 9.5-4.5 + + 109 Novag Constellation 6502 2 MHz, 1596 +Sargon III 1M 1-1 Meph. Mondial 13-7 Super Enterp. 34-25 +Sensory 9 B 8-6 Sensory 9 A 34-22 Steinitz 46-17 +Mephisto IIIM 24-12 Mephisto II 6 26.5-10.5 Turbo 16K 16-4 +Chess 2001 13-4 Scisys supers 33.5-20.5 Mephisto III6 15.5-8.5 +Conchess -82 19.5-5.5 GMC 1-1 Mephisto II 3 1-0 +Mark VI 14-2 Mark V 2-0 Morphy 3.5-1.5 +Progidy 9-0 Boris 2.5 1-0 + + 110 Sargon III 1 MHz, 1590 +Conchess -82 6.5-1.5 + + 111 Mephisto Mondial, 1581 +Turbo 16K 11.5-8.5 Mephisto III6 3-1 + + 112 CXG Super Enterprise, 1561 +Turbo 16K 5-5 Mephisto III6 10.5-3.5 Enterprise S 8.5-1.5 + + 113 Fidelity Sensory 9 B, 1553 +Sensory 9 A 1-1 Mephisto IIIM 4-4 Scisys supers 7.5-4.5 +Mephisto III6 1-1 Conchess -82 3.5-0.5 Mark VI 4-0 +Morphy 3.5-0.5 + + 114 Fidelity Sensory 9 A, 1494 +Steinitz 17-18 Mephisto IIIM 13.5-14.5 Mephisto II 6 40.5-29.5 +Chess 2001 1-3 Scisys supers 2-2 Mephisto III6 10.5-4.5 +Conchess -82 18.5-9.5 GMC 18.5-7.5 Mephisto II 3 28.5-11.5 +Champion chal 15.5-6.5 Mark VI 10-7 Mark V 21.5-16.5 +Morphy 1-0 Progidy 4-0 Boris 2.5 3-0 + + 115 Steinitz, 1480, (1546 vs humans, 0 games) +Mephisto IIIM 3-1 Mephisto II 6 20-17 Chess 2001 9-11 +Scisys supers 16-8 Mephisto III6 3.5-1.5 Conchess -82 8.5-3.5 +GMC 17.5-12.5 Mephisto II 3 3.5-1.5 Mark VI 10-8 +Morphy 2.5-2.5 Boris 2.5 1-0 + + 116 Mephisto III Modular, 1471 +Mephisto II 6 1-5 Chess 2001 2-4 Scisys supers 5-1 +Mephisto III6 5-3 Conchess -82 2-2 GMC 3-1 +Mark VI 7.5-4.5 Morphy 2-2 + + 117 Mephisto II 6.1 MHz, 1470 +Chess 2001 2-2 Scisys supers 3-3 Mephisto III6 2-3 +Conchess -82 24-16 GMC 13.5-4.5 Mephisto II 3 15-4 +Champion chal 6-2 Mark VI 16-10 Mark V 29-9 +Morphy 4-1 Progidy 3-2 Boris 2.5 1.5-1.5 + + 119 Chess 2001, 1462 +Scisys supers 2-4 Mephisto III6 3-3 Conchess -82 1.5-2.5 +Mark VI 2.5-1.5 Morphy 3-1 + + 120 Scisys Superstar, 1454 +Mephisto III6 4.5-3.5 Conchess -82 2-2 GMC 1-0 +Mark VI 3-1 Morphy 1.5-2.5 + + 121 Mephisto III 6.1 MHz, 1452 +Conchess -82 4-0 Mark VI 3-1 Morphy 3-2 +Boris 2.5 1-0 + + 122 Saitek Turbo S 24K, 1431 +Champion chal 7-13 + + 123 Conchess -82 2 MHz, 1408 +GMC 2-6 Mephisto II 3 13-5 Champion chal 14.5-11.5 +Mark VI 3.5-4.5 Mark V 14.5-7.5 Morphy 9.5-4.5 +Enterprise S 12-4 Boris 2.5 1.5-0.5 + + 124 GMC, 1385 +Mephisto II 3 20-19 Champion chal 40-40 Mark V 37.5-27.5 +Boris 2.5 2-0 + + 125 Mephisto II 3.5 MHz, 1380 +Champion chal 28.5-14.5 Mark V 25.5-22.5 Morphy 42-28 +Progidy 1.5-0.5 Boris 2.5 10-1 + + 126 Champion Sensory Challenger, 1379 +Mark V 45-36 Morphy 12.5-11.5 Enterprise S 9.5-0.5 + + 127 Mark VI, 1375 +Morphy 3-1 + + 128 Mark V, 1352 +Morphy 6.5-5.5 Progidy 4-4 Boris 2.5 4.5-0.5 + + 129 Morphy, 1334 +Boris 2.5 24.5-10.5 + + 131 Enterprise S, 1182 +Boris 2.5 5-5 + diff --git a/programs/engine-intf.html b/programs/engine-intf.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..07a2976 --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/engine-intf.html @@ -0,0 +1,1895 @@ +<html> +<head> +<title>Chess Engine Communication Protocol</title> +</head> + +<body> +<hr noshade size="2"> +<h1>Chess Engine Communication Protocol</h1> +<h2><a href="http://www.tim-mann.org/">Tim Mann</a></h2> +<p> +$Id: engine-intf.html,v 2.1 2003/10/27 19:21:00 mann Exp $<br> +Version 2; implemented in xboard/WinBoard 4.2.1 and later.<br> +Changes since version 1 are indicated in <font color=red>red</font>. +<hr noshade size="2"> + +<ul> +<li><a href="#1">1. Introduction</a> +<li><a href="#2">2. Connection</a> +<li><a href="#3">3. Debugging</a> +<li><a href="#4">4. How it got this way</a> +<li><a href="#5">5. WinBoard requires Win32 engines</a> +<li><a href="#6">6. Hints on input/output</a> +<li><a href="#7">7. Signals</a> +<li><a href="#8">8. Commands from xboard to the engine</a> +<li><a href="#9">9. Commands from the engine to xboard</a> +<li><a href="#10">10. Thinking Output</a> +<li><a href="#11">11. Time control</a> +<li><a href="#12">12. Analyze Mode</a> +<li><a href="#13">13. Idioms and backward compatibility features</a> +</ul> + +<hr noshade size="2"> + +<h2><a name="1">1. Introduction</a></h2> + +<p> +This document is a set of rough notes on the protocol that xboard and +WinBoard use to communicate with gnuchessx and other chess engines. +These notes may be useful if you want to connect a different chess +engine to xboard. Throughout the notes, "xboard" means both xboard +and WinBoard except where they are specifically contrasted. +</p> + +<p> +There are two reasons I can imagine someone wanting to do this: +</p> +<ol> +<li>You have, or are developing, a chess engine but you don't want to +write your own graphical interface. +<li>You have, or are developing,a chess engine, and you want to +interface it to the Internet Chess Server. +</ol> + +<p> +In case (2), if you are using xboard, you will need to configure the +"Zippy" code into it, but WinBoard includes this code already. See +the file <a +href="http://www.tim-mann.org/xboard/zippy.README">zippy.README</a> +in the xboard or WinBoard distribution for more information. + +</p> + +<p> +These notes are unpolished, but I've attempted to make them complete +in this release. If you notice any errors, omissions, or misleading +statements, let me know. +</p> + +<p> +I'd like to hear from everyone who is trying to interface their own +chess engine to xboard/WinBoard. Please join the mailing list for +authors of xboard/WinBoard compatible chess engines and post a message +about what you're doing. The list is now hosted by Yahoo Groups; you +can join at <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/chess-engines" +>http://groups.yahoo.com/group/chess-engines</a>, or you can read the +list there without joining. The list is filtered to prevent spam. +</p> + +<h2><a name="2">2. Connection</a></h2> + +<p> +An xboard chess engine runs as a separate process from xboard itself, +connected to xboard through a pair of anonymous pipes. The engine +does not have to do anything special to set up these pipes. xboard +sets up the pipes itself and starts the engine with one pipe as its +standard input and the other as its standard output. The engine then +reads commands from its standard input and writes responses to its +standard output. This is, unfortunately, a little more complicated to +do right than it sounds; see <a href="#6">section 6</a> below. +</p> + +<p> +And yes, contrary to some people's expectations, exactly the same +thing is true for WinBoard. Pipes and standard input/output are +implemented in Win32 and work fine. You don't have to use DDE, COM, +DLLs, BSOD, or any of the other infinite complexity that +Microsoft has created just to talk between two programs. A WinBoard +chess engine is a Win32 console program that simply reads from its +standard input and writes to its standard output. See sections +<a href="#5">5</a> and <a href="#6">6</a> below for additional details. +</p> + +<h2><a name="3">3. Debugging</a></h2> + +<p> +To diagnose problems in your engine's interaction with xboard, use the +-debug flag on xboard's command line to see the messages that are +being exchanged. In WinBoard, these messages are written to the file +WinBoard.debug instead of going to the screen. +</p> + +<p> +You can turn debug mode on or off while WinBoard is running by +pressing Ctrl+Alt+F12. You can turn debug mode on or off while xboard +is running by binding DebugProc to a shortcut key (and pressing the +key!); see the instructions on shortcut keys in the xboard man page. +</p> + +<p> +While your engine is running under xboard/WinBoard, you can send a +command directly to the engine by pressing Shift+1 (xboard) or Alt+1 +(WinBoard 4.0.3 and later). This brings up a dialog that you can type +your command into. Press Shift+2 (Alt+2) instead to send to the +second chess engine in Two Machines mode. On WinBoard 4.0.2 and earlier, +Ctrl+Alt is used in place of Alt; this had to be changed due to a conflict +with typing the @-sign on some European keyboards. +</p> + +<h2><a name="4">4. How it got this way</a></h2> + +<p> +Originally, xboard was just trying to talk to the existing +command-line interface of GNU Chess 3.1+ and 4, which was designed +for people to type commands to. So the communication protocol is very +ad-hoc. It might have been good to redesign it early on, but because +xboard and GNU Chess are separate programs, I didn't want to force +people to upgrade them together to versions that matched. I +particularly wanted to keep new versions of xboard working with old +versions of GNU Chess, to make it easier to compare the play of old +and new gnuchess versions. I didn't foresee the need for a clean +protocol to be used with other chess engines in the future. +</p> + +<p> +Circumstances have changed over the years, and now there are many more +engines that work with xboard. I've had to make the protocol +description more precise, I've added some features that GNU Chess +does not support, and I've specified the standard semantics of a few +features to be slightly different from what GNU Chess 4 does. +</p> + +<p> +<font color=red> +This release of the protocol specification is the first to carry a +version number of its own -- version 2. Previous releases simply +carried a last-modified date and were loosely tied to specific +releases of xboard and WinBoard. The version number "1" applies +generally to all those older versions of the protocol. +</font> + +<font color=red> +<p>Protocol version 2 remains compatible with older engines but has +several new capabilities. In particular, it adds the +"feature" command, a new mechanism for making backward-compatible +changes and extensions to the protocol. Engines that do not support a +particular new feature do not have to use it; new features are not +enabled unless the engine specifically requests them using the feature +command. If an engine does not send the feature command at all, the +protocol behavior is nearly identical to version 1. Several new +features can be selected by the feature command in version 2, +including the "ping" command (recommended for all engines), the +"setboard" command, and many optional parameters. Additional features +will probably be added in future versions. +</p> +</font> + +<h2><a name="5">5. WinBoard requires Win32 engines</a></h2> + +<p> +Due to some Microsoft brain damage that I don't understand, WinBoard +does not work with chess engines that were compiled to use a DOS +extender for 32-bit addressing. (Probably not with 16-bit DOS or +Windows programs either.) WinBoard works only with engines that are +compiled for the Win32 API. You can get a free compiler that targets +the Win32 API from <a href="http://sources.redhat.com/cygwin/" +>http://sources.redhat.com/cygwin/</a>. I think DJGPP 2.x should also +work if you use the RSXNTDJ extension, but I haven't tried it. Of +course, Microsoft Visual C++ will work. Most likely the other +commercial products that support Win32 will work too (Borland, etc.), +but I have not tried them. Delphi has been successfully used to write +engines for WinBoard; if you want to do this, Tony Werten has donated +some <a href="http://www.tim-mann.org/winboard/delphi.txt" >sample +code</a> that should help you get started. +</p> + +<h2><a name="6">6. Hints on input/output</a></h2> + +<p> +Beware of using buffered I/O in your chess engine. The C stdio +library, C++ streams, and the I/O packages in most other languages use +buffering both on input and output. That means two things. First, +when your engine tries to write some characters to xboard, the library +stashes them in an internal buffer and does not actually write them to +the pipe connected to xboard until either the buffer fills up or you +call a special library routine asking for it to be flushed. (In C +stdio, this routine is named <tt>fflush</tt>.) Second, when your engine tries +to read some characters from xboard, the library does not read just +the characters you asked for -- it reads all the characters that are +currently available (up to some limit) and stashes any characters you +are not yet ready for in an internal buffer. The next time you ask to +read, you get the characters from the buffer (if any) before the +library tries to read more data from the actual pipe. +</p> + +<p> +Why does this cause problems? First, on the output side, remember +that your engine produces output in small quantities (say, a few +characters for a move, or a line or two giving the current analysis), +and that data always needs to be delivered to xboard/WinBoard for +display immediately. If you use buffered output, the data you print +will sit in a buffer in your own address space instead of being +delivered. +</p> + +<p> +You can usually fix the output buffering problem by asking for the +buffering to be turned off. In C stdio, you do this by calling +<tt>setbuf(stdout, NULL)</tt>. A more laborious and error-prone +method is to carefully call <tt>fflush(stdout)</tt> after every line +you output; I don't recommend this. In C++, you can try +<tt>cout.setf(ios::unitbuf)</tt>, which is documented in current +editions of "The C++ Programming Language," but not older ones. +Another C++ method that might work is +<tt>cout.rdbuf()->setbuf(NULL, 0)</tt>. Alternatively, you can +carefully call <tt>cout.flush()</tt> after every line you output; +again, I don't recommend this. +</p> + +<p> +Another way to fix the problem is to use unbuffered operating system +calls to write directly to the file descriptor for standard output. +On Unix, this means <tt>write(1, ...)</tt> -- see the man page for write(2). +On Win32, you can use either the Unix-like <tt>_write(1, ...)</tt> or Win32 +native routines like <tt>WriteFile</tt>. +</p> + +<p> +Second, on the input side, you are likely to want to poll during your +search and stop it if new input has come in. If you implement +pondering, you'll need this so that pondering stops when the user +makes a move. You should also poll during normal thinking on your +move, so that you can implement the "?" (move now) command, and so +that you can respond promptly to a "result", "force", or "quit" +command if xboard wants to end the game or terminate your engine. +Buffered input makes polling more complicated -- when you poll, you +must stop your search if there are <em>either</em> characters in the buffer +<em>or</em> characters available from the underlying file descriptor. +</p> + +<p> +The most direct way to fix this problem is to use unbuffered operating +system calls to read (and poll) the underlying file descriptor +directly. On Unix, use <tt>read(0, ...)</tt> to read from standard input, and +use <tt>select()</tt> to poll it. See the man pages read(2) and select(2). +(Don't follow the example of GNU Chess 4 and use the FIONREAD ioctl to +poll for input. It is not very portable; that is, it does not exist +on all versions of Unix, and is broken on some that do have it.) On +Win32, you can use either the Unix-like <tt>_read(0, ...)</tt> or the native +Win32 <tt>ReadFile()</tt> to read. Unfortunately, under Win32, the function to +use for polling is different depending on whether the input device is +a pipe, a console, or something else. (More Microsoft brain damage +here -- did they never hear of device independence?) For pipes, you +can use <tt>PeekNamedPipe</tt> to poll (even when the pipe is unnamed). +For consoles, +you can use <tt>GetNumberOfConsoleInputEvents</tt>. For sockets only, you can +use <tt>select()</tt>. It might be possible to use +<tt>WaitForSingleObject</tt> more +generally, but I have not tried it. Some code to do these things can +be found in Crafty's utility.c, but I don't guarantee that it's all +correct or optimal. +</p> + +<p> +A second way to fix the problem might be to ask your I/O library not +to buffer on input. It should then be safe to poll the underlying +file descriptor as described above. With C, you can try calling +<tt>setbuf(stdin, NULL)</tt>. However, I have never tried this. Also, there +could be problems if you use <tt>scanf()</tt>, at least with certain patterns, +because <tt>scanf()</tt> sometimes needs to read one extra character and "push +it back" into the buffer; hence, there is a one-character pushback +buffer even if you asked for stdio to be unbuffered. With C++, you +can try <tt>cin.rdbuf()->setbuf(NULL, 0)</tt>, but again, I have never tried +this. +</p> + +<p> +A third way to fix the problem is to check whether there are +characters in the buffer whenever you poll. C I/O libraries generally +do not provide any portable way to do this. Under C++, you can use +<tt>cin.rdbuf()->in_avail()</tt>. This method has been reported to +work with +EXchess. Remember that if there are no characters in the buffer, you +still have to poll the underlying file descriptor too, using the +method described above. +</p> + +<p> +A fourth way to fix the problem is to use a separate thread to read +from stdin. This way works well if you are familiar with thread +programming. This thread can be blocked waiting for input to come in +at all times, while the main thread of your engine does its thinking. +When input arrives, you have the thread put the input into a buffer +and set a flag in a global variable. Your search routine then +periodically tests the global variable to see if there is input to +process, and stops if there is. WinBoard and my Win32 ports of ICC +timestamp and FICS timeseal use threads to handle multiple input +sources. +</p> + +<h2><a name="7">7. Signals</a></h2> + +<p>Engines that run on Unix need to be concerned with two Unix +signals: <tt>SIGTERM</tt> and <tt>SIGINT</tt>. This applies both to +engines that run under xboard and (the unusual case of) engines that +WinBoard remotely runs on a Unix host using the -firstHost or +-secondHost feature. It does not apply to engines that run on +Windows, because Windows does not have Unix-style signals. +<font color=red> +Beginning with version 2, you can now turn off the use of +either or both +signals. See the "feature" command in <a href="#6">section 9</a> below. +</font> +</p> + +<p>First, when an engine is sent the "quit" command, it is also given +a <tt>SIGTERM</tt> signal shortly afterward to make sure it goes away. +If your engine reliably responds to "quit", and the signal causes +problems for you, you should either ignore it by calling +<tt>signal(SIGTERM, SIG_IGN)</tt> at the start of your program, +or disable it with the "feature" command.</p> + +<p>Second, xboard will send an interrupt signal (<tt>SIGINT</tt>) at +certain times when it believes the engine may not be listening to user +input (thinking or pondering). WinBoard currently does this only when +the engine is running remotely using the -firstHost or -secondHost +feature, not when it is running locally. You probably need to know +only enough about this grungy feature to keep it from getting in your +way. +</p> + +<p> +The <tt>SIGINT</tt>s are basically tailored to the needs of GNU Chess 4 +on systems where its input polling code is broken or disabled. +Because they work in a rather peculiar way, it is recommended that you +either ignore <tt>SIGINT</tt> by having your engine call +<tt>signal(SIGINT, SIG_IGN)</tt>, or disable it with the "feature" +command.</p> + +<p> +Here are details for the curious. If xboard needs to send a command +when it is the chess engine's move (such as before the "?" command), +it sends a <tt>SIGINT</tt> first. If xboard needs to send commands when it is +not the chess engine's move, but the chess engine may be pondering +(thinking on its opponent's time) or analyzing (analysis or analyze +file mode), xboard sends a <tt>SIGINT</tt> before the first such command only. +Another <tt>SIGINT</tt> is not sent until another move is made, even if xboard +issues more commands. This behavior is necessary for GNU Chess 4. The +first <tt>SIGINT</tt> stops it from pondering until the next move, but on some +systems, GNU Chess 4 will die if it receives a <tt>SIGINT</tt> when not +actually thinking or pondering. +</p> + +<p> +There are two reasons why WinBoard does not send the Win32 equivalent +of <tt>SIGINT</tt> (which is called <tt>CTRL_C_EVENT</tt>) to local +engines. First, the Win32 GNU Chess 4 port does not need it. Second, I +could not find a way to get it to work. Win32 seems to be designed +under the assumption that only console applications, not windowed +applications, would ever want to send a <tt>CTRL_C_EVENT</tt>. +</p> + +<h2><a name="8">8. Commands from xboard to the engine</a></h2> + +<p> +All commands from xboard to the engine end with a newline (\n), even +where that is not explicitly stated. All your output to xboard must +be in complete lines; any form of prompt or partial line will cause +problems. +</p> + +<p> +At the beginning of each game, xboard sends an initialization string. +This is currently "new\nrandom\n" unless the user changes it with the +initString or secondInitString option. +</p> + +<p> +xboard normally reuses the same chess engine process for multiple +games. At the end of a game, xboard will send the "force" command +(see below) to make sure your engine stops thinking about the current +position. It will later send the initString again to start a new +game. If your engine can't play multiple games, you can disable reuse +<font color=red> +either with the "feature" command (beginning in protocol version +2; see below) or +</font> +with xboard's -xreuse (or -xreuse2) command line +option. xboard will then ask the process to quit after each game and +start a new process for the next game. +</p> + +<dl> +<dt><strong>xboard</strong> +<dd>This command will be sent once immediately after your engine +process is started. You can use it to put your engine into "xboard +mode" if that is needed. If your engine prints a prompt to ask for +user input, you must turn off the prompt and output a newline when the +"xboard" command comes in. +<p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>protover N</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red> +Beginning in protocol version 2 (in which N=2), this command will +be sent immediately after the "xboard" command. If you receive some +other command immediately after "xboard" (such as "new"), you can +assume that protocol version 1 is in use. The "protover" command is +the only new command that xboard always sends in version 2. All other +new commands to the engine are sent only if the engine first enables +them with the "feature" command. Protocol versions will always be +simple integers so that they can easily be compared. + +<p>Your engine should reply to the protover command by sending the +"feature" command (see below) with the list of non-default feature +settings that you require, if any. + +<p>Your engine should never refuse to run due to receiving a higher +protocol version number than it is expecting! New protocol versions +will always be compatible with older ones by default; the larger +version number is simply a hint that additional "feature" command +options added in later protocol versions may be accepted. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>accepted</strong></font> +<dt><font color=red><strong>rejected</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red> +These commands may be sent to your engine in reply to the "feature" +command; see its documentation below. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>new</strong> +<dd>Reset the board to the standard chess starting position. Set +White on move. Leave force mode and set the engine to play Black. +Associate the engine's clock with Black and the opponent's clock with +White. Reset clocks and time controls to the start of a new game. +Stop clocks. Do not ponder on this move, even if pondering is on. +Remove any search depth limit previously set by the sd command. +<p> + +<dt><strong>variant VARNAME</strong> +<dd>If the game is not standard chess, but a variant, this command is +sent after "new" and before the first move or "edit" command. Currently +defined variant names are: + +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>wildcastle<td>Shuffle chess where king can castle from d file +<tr align="left"><th>nocastle<td>Shuffle chess with no castling at all +<tr align="left"><th>fischerandom<td>Fischer Random (not supported yet) +<tr align="left"><th>bughouse<td>Bughouse, ICC/FICS rules +<tr align="left"><th>crazyhouse<td>Crazyhouse, ICC/FICS rules +<tr align="left"><th>losers<td>Win by losing all pieces or getting mated (ICC) +<tr align="left"><th>suicide<td>Win by losing all pieces including king, +or by having fewer pieces when one player has no legal moves (FICS) +<tr align="left"><th><font color=red>giveaway</font> +<td><font color=red>Win by losing all pieces including king, +or by having no legal moves (ICC)</font> +<tr align="left"><th>twokings<td>Weird ICC wild 9 +<tr align="left"><th>kriegspiel<td>Kriegspiel (engines not supported) +<tr align="left"><th>atomic<td>Atomic +<tr align="left"><th>3check<td>Win by giving check 3 times +<tr align="left"><th>unknown<td>Unknown variant (not supported) +</table> +<p> + +<dt><strong>quit</strong> +<dd>The chess engine should immediately exit. This command is used +when xboard is itself exiting, and also between games if the -xreuse +command line option is given (or -xreuse2 for the second engine). +See also <a href="#7">Signals</a> above. +<p> + +<dt><strong>random</strong> +<dd>This command is specific to GNU Chess 4. You can either ignore it +completely (that is, treat it as a no-op) or implement it as GNU Chess +does. The command toggles "random" mode (that is, it sets random = +!random). In random mode, the engine adds a small random value to its +evaluation function to vary its play. The "new" command sets random +mode off. +<p> + +<dt><strong>force</strong> +<dd>Set the engine to play neither color ("force mode"). Stop clocks. +The engine should check that moves received in force mode are legal +and made in the proper turn, but should not think, ponder, or make +moves of its own. +<p> + +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Leave force mode and set the engine to play the color that is on +move. Associate the engine's clock with the color that is on move, +the opponent's clock with the color that is not on move. Start the engine's +clock. Start thinking and eventually make a move. +<p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>playother</strong></font> +<dd> +<font color=red> +(This command is new in protocol version 2. It is not +sent unless you enable it with the feature command.) +Leave force mode and set the engine to play the color that is <i>not</i> on +move. Associate the opponent's clock with the color that is on move, +the engine's clock with the color that is not on move. Start the opponent's +clock. If pondering is enabled, the engine should begin pondering. +If the engine later receives a move, it should start thinking and eventually +reply. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dd> +<font color=red> +(This command is obsolete as of protocol version 2, but is still +sent in some situations to accommodate older engines unless you disable it +with the feature command.) +</font> +Set White on move. Set the engine to play Black. Stop clocks. +<p> + +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dd> +<font color=red> +(This command is obsolete as of protocol version 2, but is still +sent in some situations to accommodate older engines unless you disable it +with the feature command.) +</font> +Set Black on move. Set the engine to play White. Stop clocks. +<p> + +<dt><strong>level MPS BASE INC</strong> +<dd>Set time controls. See the <a href="#11">Time Control</a> section below. +<p> + +<dt><strong>st TIME</strong> +<dd>Set time controls. See the <a href="#11">Time Control</a> section +below. The commands "level" and "st" are not used together. +<p> + +<dt><strong>sd DEPTH</strong> +<dd>The engine should limit its thinking to DEPTH ply. +<p> + +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dd>Set a clock that always belongs to the engine. N is a number in + centiseconds (units of 1/100 second). Even if the engine changes to + playing the opposite color, this clock remains with the engine. +<p> + +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> + +<dd>Set a clock that always belongs to the opponent. N is a number in +centiseconds (units of 1/100 second). Even if the opponent changes to +playing the opposite color, this clock remains with the opponent. +<p> +If needed for purposes of board display in force mode (where the +engine is not participating in the game) the time clock should be +associated with the last color that the engine was set to play, the +otim clock with the opposite color. +</p> + +<p> +<font color=red> +Beginning in protocol version 2, if you can't handle the time and +otim commands, you can use the "feature" command to disable them; see +below. +</font> +The following techniques from older protocol versions also +work: You can ignore the time and otim commands (that is, treat them +as no-ops), or send back "Error (unknown command): time" the first +time you see "time". +</p> + +<dt><strong>MOVE</strong> +<dd>See below for the syntax of moves. If the move is illegal, print +an error message; see the section "<a href="#9">Commands from the engine to +xboard</a>". If the move is legal and in turn, make it. If not in force +mode, stop the opponent's clock, start the engine's clock, start +thinking, and eventually make a move. +<p> +When xboard sends your engine a move, it normally sends coordinate +algebraic notation. Examples: +<p> +<table> +<tr align="left"><td>Normal moves:<td>e2e4 +<tr align="left"><td>Pawn promotion:<td>e7e8q +<tr align="left"><td>Castling:<td>e1g1, e1c1, e8g8, e8c8 +<tr align="left"><td>Bughouse/crazyhouse drop:<td>P@h3 +<tr align="left"><td>ICS Wild 0/1 castling:<td>d1f1, d1b1, d8f8, d8b8 +<tr align="left"><td>FischerRandom castling:<td>O-O, O-O-O (oh, not zero) +</table> + +<p> +<font color=red> +Beginning in protocol version 2, you can use the feature command +to select SAN (standard algebraic notation) instead; for example, e4, +Nf3, exd5, Bxf7+, Qxf7#, e8=Q, O-O, or P@h3. Note that the last form, +P@h3, is a extension to the PGN standard's definition of SAN, which does +not support bughouse or crazyhouse. +</font> +</p> + +<p> +xboard doesn't reliably detect illegal moves, because it does not keep +track of castling unavailability due to king or rook moves, or en +passant availability. If xboard sends an illegal move, send back an +error message so that xboard can retract it and inform the user; see +the section "<a href="#9">Commands from the engine to xboard</a>". +</p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>usermove MOVE</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red> +By default, moves are sent to the engine without a command name; +the notation is just sent as a line by itself. +Beginning in protocol version 2, you can use the feature command +to cause the command name "usermove" to be sent before the move. +Example: "usermove e2e4". +</font> +</p> + +<dt><strong>?</strong> +<dd>Move now. If your engine is thinking, it should move immediately; + otherwise, the command should be ignored (treated as a no-op). It + is permissible for your engine to always ignore the ? command. The + only bad consequence is that xboard's Move Now menu command will do + nothing. +<p> +It is also permissible for your engine to move immediately if it gets +any command while thinking, as long as it processes the command right +after moving, but it's preferable if you don't do this. For example, +xboard may send post, nopost, easy, hard, force, quit, +<font color=red> +or other commands +</font> +while the engine is on move. +</p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>ping N</strong></font> +<dd> +<font color=red> +In this command, N is a decimal number. When you receive the command, +reply by sending the string <strong>pong N</strong>, where N is the +same number you received. Important: You must not reply to a "ping" +command until you have finished executing all commands that you +received before it. Pondering does not count; if you receive a ping +while pondering, you should reply immediately and continue pondering. +Because of the way xboard uses the ping command, if you implement the +other commands in this protocol, you should never see a "ping" command +when it is your move; however, if you do, you must not send the "pong" +reply to xboard until after you send your move. For example, xboard +may send "?" immediately followed by "ping". If you implement the "?" +command, you will have moved by the time you see the subsequent ping +command. Similarly, xboard may send a sequence like "force", "new", +"ping". You must not send the pong response until after you have +finished executing the "new" command and are ready for the new game to +start. + +<p> +The ping command is new in protocol version 2 and will not be sent +unless you enable it with the "feature" command. Its purpose is to +allow several race conditions that could occur in previous versions of +the protocol to be fixed, so it is highly recommended that you +implement it. It is especially important in simple engines that do +not ponder and do not poll for input while thinking, but it is needed in all +engines. +</p> +</font> + +<dt><strong>draw</strong> +<dd>The engine's opponent offers the engine a draw. To accept the +draw, send "offer draw". To decline, ignore the offer (that is, send +nothing). If you're playing on ICS, it's possible for the draw offer +to have been withdrawn by the time you accept it, so don't assume the +game is over because you accept a draw offer. Continue playing until +xboard tells you the game is over. See also "offer draw" below. +<p> + +<dt><strong>result RESULT {COMMENT}</strong> +<dd>After the end of each game, xboard will send you a result command. +You can use this command to trigger learning. RESULT is either 1-0, +0-1, 1/2-1/2, or *, indicating whether white won, black won, the game +was a draw, or the game was unfinished. The COMMENT string is purely +a human-readable comment; its content is unspecified and subject to +change. In ICS mode, it is passed through from ICS uninterpreted. +Example: <pre>result 1-0 {White mates}</pre> +<p> +Here are some notes on interpreting the "result" command. Some apply +only to playing on ICS ("Zippy" mode). +</p> + +<p> +If you won but did not just play a mate, your opponent must have +resigned or forfeited. If you lost but were not just mated, you +probably forfeited on time, or perhaps the operator resigned manually. +If there was a draw for some nonobvious reason, perhaps your opponent +called your flag when he had insufficient mating material (or vice +versa), or perhaps the operator agreed to a draw manually. +</p> + +<p> +You will get a result command even if you already know the game ended +-- for example, after you just checkmated your opponent. In fact, if +you send the "RESULT {COMMENT}" command (discussed below), you will +simply get the same thing fed back to you with "result" tacked in +front. You might not always get a "result *" command, however. In +particular, you won't get one in local chess engine mode when the user +stops playing by selecting Reset, Edit Game, Exit or the like. +</p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>setboard FEN</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red> +The setboard command is the new way to set up positions, beginning +in protocol version 2. It is not used unless it has been selected +with the feature command. Here FEN is a position in Forsythe-Edwards +Notation, as defined in the PGN standard. + +<p><i>Illegal positions:</i> Note that either setboard or edit can +be used to send an illegal position to the engine. The user can +create any position with xboard's Edit Position command (even, say, +an empty board, or a board with 64 white kings and no black ones). +If your engine receives a position that it considers illegal, +I suggest that you send the response "tellusererror Illegal position", +and then respond to any attempted move with "Illegal move" until +the next new, edit, or setboard command.</p> +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>edit</strong> +<dd> +<font color=red> +The edit command is the old way to set up positions. For compatibility +with old engines, it is still used by default, but new engines may prefer +to use the feature command (see below) to cause xboard to use setboard instead. +</font> +The edit command puts the chess engine into a special mode, where +it accepts the following subcommands: +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>c<td>change current piece color, initially white +<tr align="left"><th>Pa4 (for example)<td>place pawn of current color on a4 +<tr align="left"><th>xa4 (for example)<td>empty the square a4 (not used by xboard) +<tr align="left"><th>#<td>clear board +<tr align="left"><th>.<td>leave edit mode +</table> +<font color=red> +See the Idioms section below for additional subcommands used in +ChessBase's implementation of the protocol. +</font> + +<p>The edit command does not change the side to move. To set up a +black-on-move position, xboard uses the following command sequence: +</p> +<pre> + new + force + a2a3 + edit + <edit commands> + . +</pre> + +<p> +This sequence is used to avoid the "black" command, which is now +considered obsolete and which many engines never did implement as +specified in this document. +</p> + +<p> +After an edit command is complete, if a king and a rook are on their +home squares, castling is assumed to be available to them. En passant +capture is assumed to be illegal on the current move regardless of the +positions of the pawns. The clock for the 50 move rule starts at +zero, and for purposes of the draw by repetition rule, no prior +positions are deemed to have occurred. +</p> + +<dt><strong>hint</strong> +<dd>If the user asks for a hint, xboard sends your engine the command +"hint". Your engine should respond with "Hint: xxx", where xxx is a +suggested move. If there is no move to suggest, you can ignore the +hint command (that is, treat it as a no-op). +<p> + +<dt><strong>bk</strong> +<dd>If the user selects "Book" from the xboard menu, xboard will send +your engine the command "bk". You can send any text you like as the +response, as long as each line begins with a blank space or tab (\t) +character, and you send an empty line at the end. The text pops up in +a modal information dialog. +<p> + +<dt><strong>undo</strong> +<dd>If the user asks to back up one move, xboard will send you the +"undo" command. xboard will not send this command without putting you +in "force" mode first, so you don't have to worry about what should +happen if the user asks to undo a move your engine made. (GNU Chess 4 +actually switches to playing the opposite color in this case.) +<p> + +<dt><strong>remove</strong> +<dd>If the user asks to retract a move, xboard will send you the +"remove" command. It sends this command only when the user is on +move. Your engine should undo the last two moves (one for each +player) and continue playing the same color. +<p> + +<dt><strong>hard</strong> +<dd>Turn on pondering (thinking on the opponent's time, also known as +"permanent brain"). xboard will not make any assumption about what +your default is for pondering or whether "new" affects this setting. +<p> + +<dt><strong>easy</strong> +<dd>Turn off pondering. +<p> + +<dt><strong>post</strong> +<dd>Turn on thinking/pondering output. +See <a href="#10">Thinking Output</a> section. +<p> + +<dt><strong>nopost</strong> +<dd>Turn off thinking/pondering output. +<p> + +<dt><strong>analyze</strong> +<dd>Enter analyze mode. See <a href="#12">Analyze Mode</a> section. +<p> + +<dt><strong>name X</strong> <dd>This command informs the engine of its +opponent's name. When the engine is playing on a chess server, xboard +obtains the opponent's name from the server. +<font color=red> +When the engine is +playing locally against a human user, xboard obtains the user's login +name from the local operating system. When the engine is playing +locally against another engine, xboard uses either the other engine's +filename or the name that the other engine supplied in the myname +option to the feature command. By default, xboard uses the name +command only when the engine is playing on a chess server. Beginning +in protocol version 2, you can change this with the name option to the +feature command; see below. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>rating</strong> +<dd>In ICS mode, xboard obtains the ICS opponent's rating from the +"Creating:" message that appears before each game. (This message may +not appear on servers using outdated versions of the FICS code.) In +Zippy mode, it sends these ratings on to the chess engine using the +"rating" command. The chess engine's own rating comes first, and if +either opponent is not rated, his rating is given as 0. +<font color=red> +In the future this command may also be used in other modes, if ratings +are known. +</font> +Example: <pre>rating 2600 1500</pre> +<p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>ics HOSTNAME</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red> +If HOSTNAME is "-", the engine is playing against a local +opponent; otherwise, the engine is playing on an Internet Chess Server +(ICS) with the given hostname. This command is new in protocol +version 2 and is not sent unless the engine has enabled it with +the "feature" command. Example: "ics freechess.org" +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>computer</strong> +<dd>The opponent is also a computer chess engine. Some engines alter +their playing style when they receive this command. +<p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>pause</strong></font> +<dt><font color=red><strong>resume</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red>(These commands are new in protocol +version 2 and will not be sent unless feature pause=1 is set. At +this writing, xboard actually does not use the commands at all, but it +or other interfaces may use them in the future.) +The "pause" command puts the engine into a special state where it +does not think, ponder, or otherwise consume significant CPU time. +The current thinking or pondering (if any) is suspended and both +player's clocks are stopped. The only command that the interface may +send to the engine while it is in the paused state is "resume". The +paused thinking or pondering (if any) resumes from exactly where it +left off, and the clock of the player on move resumes running from +where it stopped. +</font> +</dl> + +<h3>Bughouse commands:</h3> + +<p> +xboard now supports bughouse engines when in Zippy mode. See +<a href="http://www.tim-mann.org/xboard/zippy.README" +>zippy.README</a> for information on Zippy mode and how to turn on the +bughouse support. The bughouse move format is given above. xboard +sends the following additional commands to the engine when in bughouse +mode. +Commands to inform your engine of the partner's game state may +be added in the future. +</p> + +<dl> +<dt><strong>partner <player></strong> +<dd><player> is now your partner for future games. Example: <pre>partner mann</pre> +<p> + +<dt><strong>partner</strong> +<dd>Meaning: You no longer have a partner. +<p> + +<dt><strong>ptell <text></strong> +<dd>Your partner told you <text>, either with a ptell or an ordinary tell. +<p> + +<dt><strong>holding [<white>] [<black>]</strong> +<dd>White currently holds <white>; black currently holds <black>. + Example: <pre>holding [PPPRQ] []</pre> + +<dt><strong>holding [<white>] [<black>] <color><piece></strong> +<dd>White currently holds <white>; black currently holds <black>, after + <color> acquired <piece>. Example: <pre>holding [PPPRQ] [R] BR</pre> +</dl> + +<h2><a name="9">9. Commands from the engine to xboard</a></h2> + +<p> +<font color=red> +In general, an engine should not send any output to xboard that is not +described in this document. As the protocol is extended, newer +versions of xboard may recognize additional strings as commands that +were previously not assigned a meaning. +</font> +</p> + +<dl> +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>feature FEATURE1=VALUE1 FEATURE2=VALUE2 ...</strong> +</font> + +<dd><font color=red> +Beginning with version 2, the protocol includes the "feature" +command, which lets your engine control certain optional protocol +features. Feature settings are written as FEATURE=VALUE, where +FEATURE is a name from the list below and VALUE is the value to be +assigned. Features can take string, integer, or boolean values; the +type of value is listed for each feature. String values are written +in double quotes (for example, <tt>feature myname="Miracle Chess +0.9"</tt>), integers are written in decimal, and boolean values are +written as 0 for false, 1 for true. Any number of features can be set +in one feature command, or multiple feature commands can be given. + +<p> +Your engine should send one or more feature commands immediately after +receiving the "protover" command, since xboard needs to know the +values of some features before sending further commands to the engine. +Because engines that predate protocol version 2 do not send "feature", +xboard uses a timeout mechanism: when it first starts your engine, it +sends "xboard" and "protover N", then listens for feature commands for +two seconds before sending any other commands. To end this timeout +and avoid the wait, set the feature "done=1" at the end of your last +feature command. To increase the timeout, if needed, set the feature +"done=0" before your first feature command and "done=1" at the end. +If needed, it is okay for your engine to set done=0 soon as it starts, +even before it receives the xboard and protover commands. This can be +useful if your engine takes a long time to initialize itself. It +should be harmless even if you are talking to a (version 1) user +interface that does not understand the "feature" command, since such +interfaces generally ignore commands from the engine that they do not +understand. +</p> + +<p> +The feature command is designed to let the protocol change without +breaking engines that were written for older protocol versions. When +a new feature is added to the protocol, its default value is always +chosen to be compatible with older versions of the protocol that did +not have the feature. Any feature that your engine does not set in a +"feature" command retains its default value, so as the protocol +changes, you do not have to change your engine to keep up with it +unless you want to take advantage of a new feature. Because some +features are improvements to the protocol, while others are meant to +cater to engines that do not implement all the protocol features, the +recommended setting for a feature is not always the same as the +default setting. The listing below gives both default and recommended +settings for most features. +</p> + +<p> +You may want to code your engine so as to be able to work with +multiple versions of the engine protocol. Protocol version 1 does not +send the protover command and does not implement the feature command; +if you send a feature command in protocol version 1, it will have no +effect and there will be no response. In protocol version 2 or later, +each feature F that you set generates the response "accepted F" if the +feature is implemented, or "rejected F" if it is not. Thus an engine +author can request any feature without having to keep track of which +protocol version it was introduced in; you need only check whether the +feature is accepted or rejected. This mechanism also makes it +possible for a user interface author to implement a subset of a +protocol version by rejecting some features that are defined in that +version; however, you should realize that engine authors are likely to +code for xboard and may not be prepared to have a feature that they +depend on be rejected. +</p> + +<p> +Here are the features that are currently defined. +</p> +</font> + +<dl> +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>ping</strong> (boolean, default 0, recommended 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If ping=1, xboard may use the protocol's new "ping" command; +if ping=0, xboard will not use the command. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>setboard</strong> (boolean, default 0, recommended 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If setboard=1, xboard will use the protocol's new "setboard" command +to set up positions; if setboard=0, it will use the older "edit" command. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>playother</strong> (boolean, default 0, recommended 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If playother=1, xboard will use the protocol's new "playother" command +when appropriate; if playother=0, it will not use the command. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>san</strong> (boolean, default 0) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If san=1, xboard will send moves to the engine in standard algebraic +notation (SAN); for example, Nf3. If san=0, xboard will send moves in +coordinate notation; for example, g1f3. See MOVE in +<a href="#8">section 8</a> above for more details of both kinds of notation. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>usermove</strong> (boolean, default 0) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If usermove=1, xboard will send moves to the engine with the +command "usermove MOVE"; if usermove=0, xboard will send just the move, +with no command name. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>time</strong> (boolean, default 1, recommended 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If time=1, xboard will send the "time" and "otim" commands to +update the engine's clocks; if time=0, it will not. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>draw</strong> (boolean, default 1, recommended 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If draw=1, xboard will send the "draw" command if the engine's opponent +offers a draw; if draw=0, xboard will not inform the engine about +draw offers. Note that if draw=1, you may receive a draw offer while you +are on move; if this will cause you to move immediately, you should set +draw=0. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>sigint</strong> (boolean, default 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If sigint=1, xboard may send SIGINT (the interrupt signal) to +the engine as <a href="#7">section 7</a> above; if sigint=0, it will +not. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>sigterm</strong> (boolean, default 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If sigterm=1, xboard may send SIGTERM (the termination signal) to +the engine as <a href="#7">section 7</a> above; if sigterm=0, it will +not. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>reuse</strong> (boolean, default 1, recommended 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If reuse=1, xboard may reuse your engine for multiple games. If +reuse=0 (or if the user has set the -xreuse option on xboard's command +line), xboard will kill the engine process after every game and start +a fresh process for the next game. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>analyze</strong> (boolean, default 1, recommended 1) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If analyze=0, xboard will not try to use the "analyze" command; it +will pop up an error message if the user asks for analysis mode. If +analyze=1, xboard will try to use the command if the user asks for +analysis mode. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>myname</strong> (string, default determined from engine filename) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +This feature lets you set the name that xboard will use for your +engine in window banners, in the PGN tags of saved game files, and when +sending the "name" command to another engine. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>variants</strong> (string, see text below) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +This feature indicates which chess variants your engine accepts. +It should be a comma-separated list of variant names. See the table +under the "variant" command in <a href="#8">section 8</a> above. If +you do not set this feature, xboard will assume by default that your +engine supports all variants. (However, the -zippyVariants +command-line option still limits which variants will be accepted in +Zippy mode.) It is recommended that you set this feature to the +correct value for your engine (just "normal" in most cases) rather +than leaving the default in place, so that the user will get an +appropriate error message if he tries to play a variant that your +engine does not support. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>colors</strong> (boolean, default 1, recommended 0) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If colors=1, xboard uses the obsolete "white" and "black" +commands in a stylized way that works with most older chess engines +that require the commands. See the "<a href="#13">Idioms</a>" section +below for details. If colors=0, xboard does not use the "white" and +"black" commands at all. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>ics</strong> (boolean, default 0) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If ics=1, xboard will use the protocol's new "ics" command +to inform the engine of whether or not it is playing on a chess server; +if ics=0, it will not. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>name</strong> (boolean, see text below) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If name=1, xboard will use the protocol's "name" command +to inform the engine of the opponent's name; if name=0, it will not. +By default, name=1 if the engine is playing on a chess server; name=0 if not. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>pause</strong> (boolean, default 0) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If pause=1, xboard may use the protocol's new "pause" command; +if pause=0, xboard assumes that the engine does not support this command. +</font> + +<dt><font color=red> +<strong>done</strong> (integer, no default) +</font> +<dd><font color=red> +If you set done=1 during the initial two-second timeout after +xboard sends you the "xboard" command, the +timeout will end and xboard will not look for any more feature +commands before starting normal operation. +If you set done=0, the initial timeout is increased to one hour; +in this case, you must set done=1 before xboard will enter normal operation. +</font> +</dl> +<p> + +<dt><strong>Illegal move: MOVE</strong> +<dt><strong>Illegal move (REASON): MOVE</strong> +<dd>If your engine receives a MOVE command that is recognizably a move +but is not legal in the current position, your engine must print an +error message in one of the above formats so that xboard can pass the +error on to the user and retract the move. The (REASON) is entirely +optional. Examples: + +<pre> + Illegal move: e2e4 + Illegal move (in check): Nf3 + Illegal move (moving into check): e1g1 +</pre> +<p> +Generally, xboard will never send an ambiguous move, so it does not +matter whether you respond to such a move with an Illegal move message +or an Error message. +</p> + +<dt><strong>Error (ERRORTYPE): COMMAND</strong> +<dd>If your engine receives a command it does not understand or does +not implement, it should print an error message in the above format so +that xboard can parse it. Examples: +<pre> + Error (ambiguous move): Nf3 + Error (unknown command): analyze + Error (command not legal now): undo + Error (too many parameters): level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 +</pre> + +<dt><strong>move MOVE</strong> +<dd>Your engine is making the move MOVE. Do not echo moves from +xboard with this command; send only new moves made by the engine. + +<font color=red> +<p>For the actual move text from your chess engine (in place of MOVE +above), your move should be either +<ul> +<li>in coordinate notation (e.g., +e2e4, e7e8q) with castling indicated by the King's two-square move (e.g., +e1g1), or +<li>in Standard Algebraic Notation (SAN) as defined in the +Portable Game Notation standard (e.g, e4, Nf3, O-O, cxb5, Nxe4, e8=Q), +with the extension piece@square (e.g., P@f7) to handle piece placement +in bughouse and crazyhouse. +</ul> +xboard itself also accepts some variants of SAN, but for compatibility +with non-xboard interfaces, it is best not to rely on this behavior. +</p> + +<p>Warning: Even though all versions of this protocol specification +have indicated that xboard accepts SAN moves, some non-xboard +interfaces are known to accept only coordinate notation. See the +Idioms section for more information on the known limitations of some +non-xboard interfaces. It should be safe to send SAN moves if you +receive a "protover 2" (or later) command from the interface, but +otherwise it is best to stick to coordinate notation for maximum +compatibility. An even more conservative approach would be for your +engine to send SAN to the interface only if you have set feature san=1 +(which causes the interface to send SAN to you) and have received +"accepted san" in reply. +</p> +</font> + +<dt><strong>RESULT {COMMENT}</strong> <dd>When your engine detects +that the game has ended by rule, your engine must output a line of the +form "RESULT {comment}" (without the quotes), where RESULT is a PGN +result code (1-0, 0-1, or 1/2-1/2), and comment is the reason. Here +"by rule" means that the game is definitely over because of what +happened on the board. In normal chess, this includes checkmate, +stalemate, triple repetition, the 50 move rule, or insufficient +material; it does not include loss on time or the like. +Examples: +<pre> + 0-1 {Black mates} + 1-0 {White mates} + 1/2-1/2 {Draw by repetition} + 1/2-1/2 {Stalemate} +</pre> + +<p> +xboard relays the result to the user, the ICS, the other engine in Two +Machines mode, and the PGN save file as required. +</p> + +<dt><strong>resign</strong> +<dd>If your engine wants to resign, it can send the command "resign". +Alternatively, it can use the "RESULT {comment}" command if the string +"resign" is included in the comment; for example "0-1 {White +resigns}". xboard relays the resignation to the user, the ICS, the +other engine in Two Machines mode, and the PGN save file as required. +<p> + +<dt><strong>offer draw</strong> +<dd>If your engine wants to offer a draw by agreement (as opposed to +claiming a draw by rule), it can send the command "offer draw". +xboard relays the offer to the user, the ICS, the other engine in Two +Machines mode, and the PGN save file as required. In Machine White, +Machine Black, or Two Machines mode, the offer is considered valid +until your engine has made two more moves. +<p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>tellopponent MESSAGE</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red> +This command lets the engine give a message to its opponent, +independent of whether the opponent is a user on the local machine or +a remote ICS user (Zippy mode). MESSAGE consists of any characters, +including whitespace, to the end of the line. When the engine is +playing against a user on the local machine, xboard pops up an +information dialog containing the message. When the engine is playing +against an opponent on the ICS (Zippy mode), xboard sends "say +MESSAGE\n" to the ICS. +<p> + +<dt><strong>tellothers MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>This command lets the engine give a message to people watching the +game other than the engine's opponent. MESSAGE consists of any +characters, including whitespace, to the end of the line. When the +engine is playing against a user on the local machine, this command +does nothing. When the engine is playing against an opponent on the +ICS (Zippy mode), xboard sends "whisper MESSAGE\n" to the ICS. +<p> + +<dt><strong>tellall MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>This command lets the engine give a message to its opponent and +other people watching the game, +independent of whether the opponent is a user on the local machine or +a remote ICS user (Zippy mode). MESSAGE consists of any characters, +including whitespace, to the end of the line. When the engine is +playing against a user on the local machine, xboard pops up an +information dialog containing the message. When the engine is playing +against an opponent on the ICS (Zippy mode), xboard sends "kibitz +MESSAGE\n" to the ICS. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>telluser MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>xboard pops up an information dialog containing the message. +MESSAGE consists of any characters, including whitespace, to the end +of the line. +<p> + +<dt><strong>tellusererror MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>xboard pops up an error dialog containing the message. +MESSAGE consists of any characters, including whitespace, to the end +of the line. +<p> + +<dt><strong>askuser REPTAG MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>Here REPTAG is a string containing no whitespace, and MESSAGE +consists of any characters, including whitespace, to the end of the +line. xboard pops up a question dialog that says MESSAGE and +has a typein box. If the user types in "bar", xboard sends "REPTAG +bar" to the engine. The user can cancel the dialog and send nothing. +<p> + +<dt><strong>tellics MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>In Zippy mode, xboard sends "MESSAGE\n" to ICS. MESSAGE consists +of any characters, including whitespace, to the end of the line. +<p> + +<dt><font color=red><strong>tellicsnoalias MESSAGE</strong></font> +<dd><font color=red> +In Zippy mode, xboard sends "xMESSAGE\n" to ICS, where "x" is a +character that prevents the ICS from expanding command aliases, if +xboard knows of such a character. (On chessclub.com and chess.net, +"/" is used; on freechess.org, "$" is used.) MESSAGE consists of any +characters, including whitespace, to the end of the line. +</font> +</dl> +<p> + +<h2><a name="10">10. Thinking Output</a></h2> + +<p> +If the user asks your engine to "show thinking", xboard sends your +engine the "post" command. It sends "nopost" to turn thinking off. +In post mode, your engine sends output lines to show the progress of +its thinking. The engine can send as many or few of these lines as it +wants to, whenever it wants to. Typically they would be sent when the +PV (principal variation) changes or the depth changes. The thinking +output should be in the following format: +</p> + +<pre>ply score time nodes pv</pre> + +Where: +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>ply<td>Integer giving current search depth. +<tr align="left"><th>score<td>Integer giving current evaluation in centipawns. +<tr align="left"><th>time<td>Current search time in centiseconds (ex: +1028 = 10.28 seconds). + +<tr align="left"><th>nodes<td>Nodes searched. +<tr align="left"><th>pv<td>Freeform text giving current "best" line. +You can continue the pv onto another line if you start each +continuation line with at least four space characters. +</table> + +<p> +Example: +</p> + +<pre> 9 156 1084 48000 Nf3 Nc6 Nc3 Nf6</pre> + +<p> +Meaning: +</p> + +9 ply, score=1.56, time = 10.84 seconds, nodes=48000, +PV = "Nf3 Nc6 Nc3 Nf6" + +<p> +Longer example from actual Crafty output: +</p> +<pre> + 4 109 14 1435 1. e4 d5 2. Qf3 dxe4 3. Qxe4 Nc6 + 4 116 23 2252 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. e4 e6 + 4 116 27 2589 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. e4 e6 + 5 141 44 4539 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. O-O e5 3. e4 + 5 141 54 5568 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. O-O e5 3. e4 +</pre> + +<p> +You can use the PV to show other things; for instance, while in book, +Crafty shows the observed frequency of different reply moves in its +book. In situations like this where your engine is not really +searching, start the PV with a '(' character: +</p> + +<pre> + 0 0 0 0 (e4 64%, d4 24%) +</pre> + +<p> +GNU Chess output is very slightly different. The ply number is +followed by an extra nonblank character, and the time is in seconds, +not hundredths of seconds. For compatibility, xboard accepts the +extra character and takes it as a flag indicating the different time +units. Example: +</p> + +<pre> + 2. 14 0 38 d1d2 e8e7 + 3+ 78 0 65 d1d2 e8e7 d2d3 + 3& 14 0 89 d1d2 e8e7 d2d3 + 3& 76 0 191 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 + 3. 76 0 215 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 + 4& 15 0 366 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 + 4. 15 0 515 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 + 5+ 74 0 702 d1e2 f7f5 e2e3 e8e7 e3f4 + 5& 71 0 1085 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3f4 + 5. 71 0 1669 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3f4 + 6& 48 0 3035 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 6. 48 0 3720 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 7& 48 0 6381 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 7. 48 0 10056 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 8& 66 1 20536 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 g7g5 a2a4 f7f5 + 8. 66 1 24387 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 g7g5 a2a4 f7f5 + 9& 62 2 38886 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 a2a4 h5h4 + d4e4 + 9. 62 4 72578 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 a2a4 h5h4 + d4e4 +10& 34 7 135944 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 c2c4 h5h4 + d4e4 f7f5 e4f4 +10. 34 9 173474 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 c2c4 h5h4 + d4e4 f7f5 e4f4 +</pre> + +<p>If your engine is pondering (thinking on its opponent's time) in post +mode, it can show its thinking then too. In this case your engine may +omit the hint move (the move it is assuming its opponent will make) +from the thinking lines <em>if and only if</em> it sends xboard the move in +the usual "Hint: xxx" format before sending the first line. +</p> + +<h2><a name="11">11. Time control</a></h2> + +<p> +xboard supports three styles of time control: conventional chess clocks, +the ICS-style incremental clock, and an exact number of seconds per move. +</p> + +<p>In conventional clock mode, every time control period is the same. +That is, if the time control is 40 moves in 5 minutes, then after each +side has made 40 moves, they each get an additional 5 minutes, and so +on, ad infinitum. At some future time it would be nice to support a +series of distinct time controls. This is very low on my personal +priority list, but code donations to the xboard project are accepted, +so feel free to take a swing at it. I suggest you talk to me first, +though. +</p> + +<p> +The command to set a conventional time control looks like this: +</p> + +<pre> + level 40 5 0 + level 40 0:30 0 +</pre> + +<p> +The 40 means that there are 40 moves per time control. The 5 means +there are 5 minutes in the control. In the second example, the 0:30 +means there are 30 seconds. The final 0 means that we are in +conventional clock mode. +</p> + +<p> +The command to set an incremental time control looks like this: +</p> + +<pre> + level 0 2 12 +</pre> + +<p> +Here the 0 means "play the whole game in this time control period", +the 2 means "base=2 minutes", and the 12 means "inc=12 seconds". As +in conventional clock mode, the second argument to level can be in +minutes and seconds. +</p> + +<p> +At the start of the game, each player's clock is set to base minutes. +Immediately after a player makes a move, inc seconds are added to his +clock. A player's clock counts down while it is his turn. Your flag +can be called whenever your clock is zero or negative. (Your clock +can go negative and then become positive again because of the +increment.) +</p> + +<p> +A special rule on some ICS implementations: if you ask for a game with +base=0, the clocks really start at 10 seconds instead of 0. xboard +itself does not know about this rule, so it passes the 0 on to the +engine instead of changing it to 0:10. +</p> + +<p> +ICS also has time odds games. With time odds, each player has his own +(base, inc) pair, but otherwise things work the same as in normal +games. The Zippy xboard accepts time odds games but ignores the fact +that the opponent's parameters are different; this is perhaps not +quite the right thing to do, but gnuchess doesn't understand time +odds. Time odds games are always unrated. +</p> + +<p> +The command to set an exact number of seconds per move looks like this: +</p> + +<pre> + st 30 +</pre> + +<p> +This means that each move must be made in at most 30 seconds. Time not used +on one move does not accumulate for use on later moves. +</p> + +<h2><a name="12">12. Analyze Mode</a></h2> + +<p>xboard supports analyzing fresh games, edited positions, and games +from files. However, all of these look the same from the chess +engine's perspective. Basically, the engine just has to respond to the +"analyze" command. +<font color=red> +Beginning in protocol version 2, +if your engine does not support analyze mode, it should use +the feature command to set analyze=0. +</font> +The older method of +printing the error message "Error (unknown command): analyze" in +response to the "analyze" command will also work, however. +</p> + +<p> +To enter analyze mode, xboard sends the command sequence "post", "analyze". +Analyze mode in your engine should be +similar to force mode, except that your engine thinks about what move +it would make next if it were on move. Your engine should accept the +following commands while in analyze mode: +</p> + +<ul> +<li>Any legal move, as in force mode +<li><strong>undo</strong> Back up one move and analyze previous position. +<li><strong>new</strong> Reset position to start of game but stay in analyze mode. +<li><font color=red><strong>setboard</strong> if you have set feature setboard=1; otherwise <strong>edit</strong>. Exiting edit mode returns to analyze mode. +</font> +<li><strong>exit</strong> Leave analyze mode. +<li><strong>.</strong> Send a search status update (optional); see below. +<li><font color=red> +<strong>bk</strong> Show book moves from this position, +if any; see above.</font> +<li><font color=red> +<strong>hint</strong> Show the predicted move from this +position, if any; see above.</font> +</ul> + +<p> +If the user selects "Periodic Updates", xboard will send the string +".\n" to the chess engine periodically during analyze mode, unless the +last PV received began with a '(' character. +</p> + +<p> +The chess engine should respond to ".\n" with a line like this: +</p> + +<pre> +stat01: time nodes ply mvleft mvtot <font color=red>mvname</font> +</pre> + +Where: +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>time<td>Elapsed search time in centiseconds (ie: 567 = 5.67 seconds). +<tr align="left"><th>nodes<td>Nodes searched so far. +<tr align="left"><th>ply<td>Search depth so far. +<tr align="left"><th>mvleft<td>Number of moves left to consider at this depth. +<tr align="left"><th>mvtot<td>Total number of moves to consider. +<tr align="left"><th><font color=red>mvname</font><td><font color=red> +Move currently being considered (SAN or coordinate notation). Optional; +added in protocol version 2.</font> +</table> + +<p> +Examples: +</p> +<pre> + stat01: 1234 30000 7 5 30 + stat01: 1234 30000 7 5 30 Nf3 +</pre> + +<p> +Meaning: +</p> + +<p>After 12.34 seconds, I've searched 7 ply/30000 nodes, there are a + total of 30 legal moves, and I have 5 more moves to search + before going to depth 8. In the second example, of the 30 legal + moves, the one I am currently searching is Nf3.</p> + +<p> +Implementation of the "." command is optional. If the engine does not +respond to the "." command with a "stat01..." line, xboard will stop +sending "." commands. If the engine does not implement this command, +the analysis window will use a shortened format to display the engine +info. +</p> + +<p> +To give the user some extra information, the chess engine can output +the strings "++\n" and "--\n", to indicate that the current search is +failing high or low, respectively. You don't have to send anything +else to say "Okay, I'm not failing high/low anymore." xboard will +figure this out itself. +</p> + +<h2><a name="13">13. Idioms and backward compatibility features</a></h2> + +<p> +Some engines have variant interpretations of the force/go/white/black, +time/otim, and hard/easy command sets. +In order to accommodate these older engines, xboard uses these commands +only according to the stylized patterns ("idioms") given in this section. +The obsolete white and black commands +have historically been particularly troublesome, and it is recommended +that new engines set the feature colors=0 and/or ignore the commands. +</p> + +<dl> + +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> +<dt><strong>MOVE</strong> +<dd>Sent when the opponent makes a move and the engine is already +playing the opposite color. +<p> + +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when the engine is in force mode or playing Black but should +switch to playing White. This sequence is sent only when White is +already on move. +<font color=red> +If you set the feature colors=0, "white" is not sent. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when the engine is in force mode or playing White but should +switch to playing Black. This sequence is sent only when Black is +already on move. +<font color=red> +If you set the feature colors=0, "black" is not sent. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when Black is on move, the engine is in force mode or playing +White, and the engine's clock needs to be updated before it starts +playing. +The initial "white" is a kludge to accommodate GNU Chess +4's variant interpretation of these commands. +<font color=red> +If you set the feature colors=0, "white" and "black" are not sent. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when White is on move, the engine is in force mode or playing +Black, and the engine's clock needs to be updated before it starts +playing. See previous idiom. +The initial "black" is a kludge to accommodate GNU Chess +4's variant interpretation of these commands. +<font color=red> +If you set the feature colors=0, "black" and "white" are not sent. +</font> +<p> + +<dt><strong>hard</strong> +<dt><strong>easy</strong> +<dd>Sent in sequence to turn off pondering if xboard is not sure +whether it is on. When xboard is sure, it will send "hard" or "easy" +alone. xboard does this because "easy" is a toggle in GNU Chess 4 but +"hard" is an absolute on. + +</dl> + +<p> +To support older engines, certain additional commands from the engine +to xboard are also recognized. (These are commands by themselves, not +values to be placed in the comment field of the PGN result code.) +These forms are not recommended for new engines; use the PGN result +code commands or the resign command instead. +</p> + +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>Command <th>Interpreted as +<tr align="left"><td>White resigns <td>0-1 {White resigns} +<tr align="left"><td>Black resigns <td>1-0 {Black resigns} +<tr align="left"><td>White <td>1-0 {White mates} +<tr align="left"><td>Black <td>0-1 {Black mates} +<tr align="left"><td>Draw <td>1/2-1/2 {Draw} +<tr align="left"><td>computer mates <td>1-0 {White mates} or 0-1 {Black mates} +<tr align="left"><td>opponent mates <td>1-0 {White mates} or 0-1 {Black mates} +<tr align="left"><td>computer resigns <td>0-1 {White resigns} or 1-0 {Black resigns} +<tr align="left"><td>game is a draw <td>1/2-1/2 {Draw} +<tr align="left"><td>checkmate <td>1-0 {White mates} or 0-1 {Black mates} +</table> + +<p> +Commands in the above table are recognized if they begin a line and +arbitrary characters follow, so (for example) "White mates" will be +recognized as "White", and "game is a draw by the 50 move rule" will +be recognized as "game is a draw". All the commands are +case-sensitive. +</p> + +<p> +An alternative move syntax is also recognized: +</p> + +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>Command <th>Interpreted as +<tr align="left"><td>NUMBER ... MOVE <td>move MOVE +</table> + +<p> +Here NUMBER means any string of decimal digits, optionally ending in a +period. MOVE is any string containing no whitespace. In this command +format, xboard requires the "..." even if your engine is playing +White. A command of the form NUMBER MOVE will be ignored. This odd +treatment of the commands is needed for compatibility with gnuchessx. +The original reasons for it are lost in the mists of time, but I +suspect it was originally a bug in the earliest versions of xboard, +before I started working on it, which someone "fixed" in the wrong +way, by creating a special version of gnuchess (gnuchessx) instead of +changing xboard. +</p> + +<p> +Any line that contains the words "offer" and "draw" is recognized as +"offer draw". +</p> + +<p> +The "Illegal move" message is recognized even if spelled "illegal +move" and even if the colon (":") is omitted. This accommodates GNU +Chess 4, which prints messages like "Illegal move (no matching +move)e2e4", and old versions of Crafty, which print just "illegal move". +</p> + +<p> +In Zippy mode, for compatibility with older versions of Crafty, +xboard passes through to ICS any line that begins "kibitz", "whisper", +"tell", or "draw". Do not use this feature in new code. Instead, use the +commands "tellall", "tellothers", "tellopponent", "tellics" (if needed), +"1/2-1/2 {COMMENT}", or "offer draw", as appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +<font color=red> +If the engine responds to the "sd DEPTH" command with an error message +indicating the command is not supported (such as "Illegal move: sd"), +xboard sets an internal flag and subsequently uses the command +"depth\nDEPTH" instead, for the benefit of GNU Chess 4. Note the +newline in the middle of this command! New engines should not rely on +this feature. +</font> +</p> + +<p> +<font color=red> +If the engine responds to the "st TIME" command with an error message +indicating the command is not supported (such as "Illegal move: st"), +xboard sets an internal flag and subsequently uses the command "level +1 TIME" instead, for the benefit of GNU Chess 4. Note that this is +not a standard use of the level command, as TIME seconds are not added +after each player makes 1 move; rather, each move is made in at most +TIME seconds. New engines should not implement or rely on this +feature. +</font> +</p> + +<font color=red> +<p> +In support of the -firstHost/-secondHost features, which allow a chess +engine to be run on another machine using the rsh protocol, xboard recognizes +error messages that are likely to come from rsh as fatal errors. The following +messages are currently recognized: +</p> + +<blockquote> +unknown host<br> +No remote directory<br> +not found<br> +No such file<br> +can't alloc<br> +Permission denied<br> +</blockquote> +</font> + +<p> +<font color=red> +ChessBase/Fritz now implements the xboard/winboard protocol and can use +WinBoard-compatible engines in its GUI. ChessBase's version of the +protocol is generally the same as version 1, except that they have +added the commands <strong>fritz</strong>, <strong>reset</strong>, and +<strong>ponder</strong>, and the edit subcommands +<strong>castle</strong> and <strong>ep</strong>. If you want your +engine to work well with the ChessBase/Fritz GUI, you may need to +implement these additional commands, and you should also be aware of +the peculiar way that ChessBase uses the protocol. See their <a +href="http://www.chessbase.com/Products/engines/winboard/tech.htm" +>web page</a> for documentation. +</font> +</p> + +<p> +<font color=red> +ChessMaster 8000 also implements version 1 of the xboard/winboard +protocol and can use WinBoard-compatible engines. The original +release of CM8000 also has one additional restriction: only pure +coordinate notation (e.g., e2e4) is accepted in the move command. A +patch to correct this should be available from The Learning Company +(makers of CM8000) in February 2001. +</font> +</p> + +<hr noshade size="2"> +<address>converted to HTML by <a href="http://www.jakob.at/steffen/">Steffen A. Jakob</a></address> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/programs/harvar93.txt b/programs/harvar93.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ce4506 --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/harvar93.txt @@ -0,0 +1,519 @@ +4TH HARVARD CUP HUMAN VERSUS COMPUTER CHESS CHALLENGE +Saturday, 6 November 1993, 10:00 AM-5:30 PM +The Computer Museum, Boston + + + +HUMANS: Patrick Wolff, Michael Rohde, Boris Gulko, Joel Benjamin, +Ilya Gurevich, Alexander Ivanov -- all International Grandmasters. + +PROGRAMS: Kasparov's Gambit (Electronic Arts), BattleChess 4000 +SVGA (Interplay Productions), Socrates Exp (Heuristic Software), +M-Chess Professional (M Chess) -- all running on 60MHz Intel Pentium +processor-based systems. Renaissance SPARC (Saitek Industries +Ltd.) -- SPARC processor. ChessSystem R30 (TASC B.V.) -- ARM processor. + +RULES: Six rounds, six games per round, time control G/25, minimum +10 minute intermission between rounds. Chief Arbiter -- Joel Salman. + +PRIZES: 1st place (human), $1000; 2nd place (human), $500. Top +human and top computer have their names engraved on the permanent +Malcolm H. Weiner Trophy and are invited back to the 5th Harvard Cup. + +SPONSORS: Intel Corporation, Electronic Arts, Interplay +Productions, Heuristic Software/Machiavelli Designs Inc., M Chess, +Saitek Industries Ltd., TASC B.V., Prodigy, USA Today Information +Center, Amerigames International, American Chess Foundation, IBM +PC Company (official computer equipment supplier), United States +Chess Federation (official chess equipment supplier). Special +thanks to The Computer Museum and its staff, the Harvard Chess +Club and its members, the Millburn Ridgefield Corporation, +Malcolm H. Wiener, and everyone who volunteered and helped make +the event a success. + +RESULTS: + +PLAYER (FIDE) SocExp CSR30 MCPro BC400 RenSPARC KGambit TOTAL +Benjamin (2620) b 1-0 b 1-0 w 1-0 b 1-0 w 1-0 w 1-0 6.0 +Ivanov (2535) b 0-1 w 1-0 b 1-0 b 1-0 w 1-0 w 1-0 5.0 +Gulko (2635) b 1/2 w 1-0 b =-= w =-= b 1-0 w 1-0 4.5 +Wolff (2585) w 1-0 b =-= w 0-1 b 1-0 w 1-0 b 1-0 4.5 +Gurevich (2575) w =-= w 0-1 b 1-0 w 1-0 b 1-0 b 1-0 4.5 +Rohde (2575) w 0-1 b 0-1 w 1-0 w 0-1 b =-= b 1-0 2.5 + TOTAL 3.0 2.5 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.0 27-9 + TPR* 2588 2528 2395 2395 2168 ---- + SE* 142 144 164 164 257 --- + +(Tournament performance ratings and standard errors calculated by +Mark Glickman using Newton-Raphson algorithm.) + +Final score: Humans 27 -- Computers 9 (75%-25%) +Top Humans: Joel Benjamin, 6-0 ($1000) + Alexander Ivanov, 5-1 ($500) +Top Computer: Socrates Exp, 3-3 + + +ROUND 1 + +Alexander Ivanov -- Kasparov's Gambit +4th Harvard Cup (1) 1993 +1 e4 e5 2 Nf3 Nc6 3 Bb5 a6 4 Ba4 Nf6 5 0-0 Be7 6 Re1 b5 7 Bb3 d6 8 +c3 0-0 9 h3 Nb8 10 d4 Nbd7 11 Nbd2 Bb7 12 Bc2 Re8 13 Nf1 Bf8 14 +Ng3 g6 15 a4 Bg7 16 Bd3 c6 17 Bg5 h6 18 Bd2 Kh7 19 h4 exd4 20 cxd4 +Kg8 21 Qc1 Kh7 22 h5 c5 23 hxg6+ fxg6 24 e5 dxe5 25 dxe5 Ng4 26 +Bxg6+ Kxg6 27 Qc2+ Kf7 28 Qf5+ Kg8 29 Qxg4 Bxf3 30 Qxf3 Nxe5 31 +Qd1 Nc4 32 Rxe8+ Qxe8 33 Bc3 Rd8 34 Qg4 Ne5 35 Bxe5 Qxe5 36 axb5 +axb5 37 Nf5 Kh8 38 Ra6 Qxb2 39 Rg6 Rd4 40 Nxd4 Qa1+ 41 Kh2 Qxd4 42 +Qxd4 Bxd4 43 Rxh6+ Kg7 44 Rb6 Bxf2 45 Rxb5 Bd4 46 Kg3 Kf6 47 Kf4 +Be5+ 48 Ke4 Bd4 49 Rb8 Kg5 50 Rc8 Kf6 51 g4 Kf7 52 Rd8 Kg6 53 Kf4 +Bg7 54 Rd6+ Kf7 55 Kf5 Ke7 56 Re6+ Kd7 57 g5 Bd4 58 Re4 Kd6 59 g6 +Bg7 60 Re6+ Kd7 61 Ra6 Ke7 62 Ra7+ Kf8 63 Ra8+ Ke7 64 Rc8 Bd4 65 +Kg5 Kd6 66 Kh6 Kd7 67 Rxc5 Kd6 68 Rc8 1-0 + +Ilya Gurevich -- BattleChess 4000 SVGA +4th Harvard Cup (1) 1993 +1 e4 e5 2 Nf3 d6 3 d4 Nf6 4 Nc3 Nbd7 5 Bc4 Be7 6 a4 exd4 7 Nxd4 +Ne5 8 Ba2 0-0 9 0-0 Bd7 10 f4 Bg4 11 Qe1 Ng6 12 h3 Bd7 13 Qf2 Qe8 +14 Bd2 Bxa4 15 Nxa4 Nxe4 16 Qe3 Bh4 17 Nc3 Ng3 18 Rf3 Qxe3+ 19 +Bxe3 a6 20 Bf2 Nh5 21 Bxh4 Nxh4 22 Rf2 Rae8 23 g4 Nf6 24 Kh2 Re3 +25 Re2 Rxe2+ 26 Ndxe2 Re8 27 Kg3 Ng6 28 Kf3 Nh4+ 29 Kf2 h5 30 g5 +Ne4+ 31 Nxe4 Rxe4 32 Bd5 Rb4 33 b3 Kf8 34 Bc4 c6 35 Ra4 Rxa4 36 +bxa4 Ng6 37 Bd3 b5 38 axb5 cxb5 39 Bxg6 fxg6 40 Ke3 Kf7 41 Nd4 d5 +42 Kd3 b4 43 Nc6 Ke6 44 Nxb4 a5 45 Nc6 a4 46 Nd4+ Kf7 47 Kc3 a3 +48 Kb3 a2 49 Kxa2 Ke7 50 Kb3 Kd7 51 Kb4 1-0 + +Socrates Exp -- Joel Benjamin +4th Harvard Cup (1) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 c3 d5 3 exd5 Qxd5 4 d4 Nf6 5 Nf3 Nc6 6 Na3 Bg4 7 Be2 +cxd4 8 cxd4 e5 9 dxe5 Qxd1+ 10 Bxd1 Bb4+ 11 Bd2 Bxd2+ 12 Kxd2 0-0-0+ +13 Kc1 Ne4 14 Rf1 Rd5 15 Nd2 Nxd2 16 Bxg4+ Kb8 17 Re1 Rhd8 18 +f4 Rc5+ 19 Nc2 Nb4 20 Bd1 Nxc2 21 Bxc2 Rdc8 22 Kxd2 Rxc2+ 23 Ke3 +Rxb2 24 Re2 Rc3+ 25 Kf2 Rxe2+ 26 Kxe2 Ra3 27 Kd2 g6 28 g3 h5 29 +Ke2 b5 30 Kd2 Kb7 31 Kc2 Kb6 32 Kb2 Re3 33 Rc1 Re2+ 34 Rc2 Rxc2+ +35 Kxc2 Kc5 36 Kd3 Kd5 37 Ke3 a5 38 Kd3 b4 39 Ke3 a4 40 Kd3 Kc5 41 +h3 Kd5 42 g4 h4 43 f5 gxf5 44 gxf5 Kxe5 45 f6 Kxf6 46 Kc4 b3 47 +axb3 axb3 48 Kxb3 Ke5 49 Kc3 Kf4 50 Kd4 Kg3 51 Ke4 Kxh3 0-1 + +Patrick Wolff -- M-Chess Professional 3.42 +4th Harvard Cup (1) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 Nf3 d6 3 d4 cxd4 4 Nxd4 Nf6 5 Nc3 a6 6 Bc4 e6 7 Bb3 b5 8 +0-0 Be7 9 Qf3 Qc7 10 Qg3 b4 11 Nce2 0-0 12 Bh6 Ne8 13 c3 bxc3 14 +Nxc3 Nd7 15 Bxe6 fxe6 16 Nxe6 Qc4 17 Bxg7 Qxe6 18 Bxf8+ Kxf8 19 f4 +Rb8 20 b3 Nef6 21 Rae1 Qg4 22 Qxg4 Nxg4 23 h3 Ngf6 24 e5 Ne8 25 +Nd5 Bh4 26 Re3 dxe5 27 fxe5+ Kg7 28 Re4 Bg5 29 Rg4 Kh6 30 Rf5 Ndf6 +31 Rgxg5 Bxf5 32 Rxf5 Nxd5 33 g4 Ng7 34 Rf7 Ne6 35 Kg2 Rc8 36 Kg3 +Ng5 37 Ra7 Rc3+ 38 Kf2 Nxh3+ 39 Ke1 Re3+ 40 Kd2 Nhf4 41 Rxa6+ Kg5 +42 Ra7 Re2+ 43 Kc1 Nd3+ 0-1 + +Renaissance SPARC -- Boris Gulko +4th Harvard Cup (1) 1993 +1 c4 e5 2 Nf3 e4 3 Nd4 Nc6 4 Nxc6 dxc6 5 Nc3 Nf6 6 g3 Bc5 7 Qb3 0-0 +8 Bg2 Re8 9 0-0 h5 10 Na4 Bd4 11 e3 Be5 12 Nc5 h4 13 Nxb7 Qe7 14 +d4 exd3 15 Na5 hxg3 16 Nxc6 gxf2+ 17 Kh1 Qd6 18 c5 Qxc5 19 Nxe5 +Qxe5 20 Rxf2 Bf5 21 Bxa8 Rxa8 22 a4 Ng4 23 Rf4 Be4+ 24 Kg1 Qh5 25 +Qxf7+ Qxf7 26 Rxf7 Kxf7 27 Bd2 Ke6 28 Rc1 Rh8 29 Rc4 Kd5 30 Rd4+ +Ke5 31 Ba5 c5 32 Bc7+ Kf5 33 Rd7 Nf6 34 Rd6 Ne8 35 Rd8 Nxc7 36 +Rxh8 d2 37 Rf8+ Ke5 38 Rf1 Bc2 39 a5 d1/Q 0-1 + +ChessSystem R30 -- Michael Rohde +4th Harvard Cup (1) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 c4 e6 3 Nf3 Bb4+ 4 Bd2 c5 5 Bxb4 cxb4 6 g3 0-0 7 Nbd2 +Nc6 8 Bg2 d6 9 0-0 e5 10 Qc2 Bg4 11 e3 a5 12 dxe5 dxe5 13 Rfd1 Qe7 +14 Ne4 Rad8 15 h3 Bf5 16 Nfd2 Kh8 17 g4 Bg6 18 Rac1 Rd7 19 g5 Ng8 +20 Nf1 Rfd8 21 Nfg3 h6 22 h4 f5 23 Rxd7 Rxd7 24 h5 fxe4 25 hxg6 +Qxg5 26 Bxe4 Nf6 27 Bf5 Rd8 28 Kf1 Nh5 29 Nxh5 Qxh5 30 Be4 Ne7 31 +Bxb7 Nxg6 32 c5 Nh4 33 c6 Qg4 34 c7 Qh3+ 35 Ke1 Rc8 36 Rd1 1-0 + + +ROUND 2 + +Kasparov's Gambit -- Ilya Gurevich +4th Harvard Cup (2) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 c4 g6 3 Nc3 d5 4 Bf4 Bg7 5 e3 c5 6 dxc5 Qa5 7 Rc1 Ne4 8 +cxd5 Nxc3 9 Qd2 Qxa2 10 bxc3 Qa5 11 Nf3 Nd7 12 c6 bxc6 13 dxc6 Nc5 +14 Qb2 Na4 15 Qa3 0-0 16 Nd4 e5 17 Nb3 Qd5 18 Bxe5 Bxe5 19 Qxa4 +Rb8 20 Nd4 Rb2 21 Qxa7 Bh3 22 Qa3 Rfb8 23 c4 Qe4 24 f3 Qh4+ 25 g3 +Qh6 26 Nb5 Bxf1 27 c7 Re8 28 Rxf1 Qxh2 29 Qd3 Bxc7 30 Kd1 Red8 31 +Nd4 Qg2 32 Ra1 Be5 33 Kc1 Bxd4 34 exd4 Re8 0-1 + +BattleChess 4000 SVGA -- Joel Benjamin +4th Harvard Cup (2) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 Nc3 Nc6 3 f4 e6 4 Nf3 Nge7 5 d4 cxd4 6 Nxd4 d5 7 Nxc6 +bxc6 8 Be3 Rb8 9 Rb1 Qc7 10 Qd2 dxe4 11 Nxe4 Nd5 12 Bc4 f5 13 Bxd5 +cxd5 14 Nc3 Ba6 15 Bd4 Bd6 16 Qe3 Kf7 17 g3 Rb4 18 a3 Rc4 19 b4 +Rc8 20 Kd2 Qd7 21 Rhe1 Be7 22 Rb3 Rxd4+ 23 Qxd4 Bf6 24 Qf2 Bc4 25 +Rbb1 d4 26 Nd1 d3 27 c3 Qa4 28 Rc1 Qxa3 29 h4 Bb3 30 c4 Qxb4+ 31 +Nc3 Bc2 32 Qxa7+ Kg8 33 Re5 Bxe5 34 fxe5 Qxc4 35 Qa3 Qd4 36 Rf1 +Qxe5 37 Rf4 h6 38 Qb4 Rxc3 39 Qxc3 Qe2+ 40 Kc1 Qd1+ 41 Kb2 Qb1+ 42 +Ka3 d2 43 Rd4 d1/Q 44 Rxd1 Bxd1 45 Qc8+ Kh7 46 Qxe6 Qb3+ 47 Qxb3 +Bxb3 48 Kxb3 Kg6 49 Kc4 Kh5 50 Kd3 Kg4 51 Ke2 Kxg3 52 h5 Kg4 53 +Kd3 Kxh5 54 Kc4 f4 0-1 + +Michael Rohde -- Socrates Exp +4th Harvard Cup (2) 1993 +1 Nf3 Nf6 2 c4 b6 3 Nc3 Bb7 4 d4 d5 5 cxd5 Nxd5 6 Qc2 e6 7 e4 Nxc3 +8 bxc3 Nd7 9 Bd3 Be7 10 0-0 0-0 11 Bf4 c5 12 d5 exd5 13 exd5 Bxd5 +14 Bxh7+ Kh8 15 Bf5 Bxf3 16 gxf3 Bg5 17 Bd6 Be7 18 Bg3 Nf6 19 Rfe1 +Rg8 20 Rad1 Qf8 21 Qe2 Re8 22 Bc2 Bd6 23 Qf1 Rxe1 24 Qxe1 Bxg3 25 +hxg3 Qa8 26 Qe7 Qxf3 27 Re1 Qxc3 28 Bb1 Ra8 29 Rd1 Re8 30 Rd8 Qc1+ +31 Kg2 Rxd8 32 Qxd8+ Ng8 33 Be4 Qh6 34 Bd5 Qh5 35 Qd7 Nf6 36 Qc8+ +Kh7 37 Bf3 Qe5 38 Qb7 Qe6 39 Qxa7 c4 40 a4 c3 41 Qc7 Qb3 42 Qc8 c2 +43 Qh3+ Kg6 44 Qc8 Qb2 45 Be2 c1/Q 46 Bd3+ Kg5 47 Qf5+ Kh6 48 Qh3 +Nh5 49 Qf5 Qf6 0-1 + +M-Chess Professional 3.42 -- Alexander Ivanov +4th Harvard Cup (2) 1993 +1 e4 g6 2 d4 Bg7 3 Nc3 c6 4 Bc4 b5 5 Bb3 a5 6 a4 b4 7 Nce2 d5 8 e5 +Na6 9 Bg5 f6 10 exf6 exf6 11 Bf4 Ne7 12 h3 0-0 13 Nf3 g5 14 Bg3 +Ng6 15 h4 g4 16 Nd2 h5 17 c3 Bf5 18 0-0 Bh6 19 Bc2 Bxc2 20 Qxc2 f5 +21 Nb3 Kg7 22 Be5+ Kh7 23 Ng3 Qxh4 24 Nxf5 Qg5 25 Nxh6 Kxh6 26 +Nxa5 Rac8 27 Bd6 Rf6 28 Bxb4 Nxb4 29 cxb4 Nh4 30 Kh1 Nf3 31 g3 +Nxd4 32 Qc3 Nf3 33 Rfd1 Kg7 34 Nb3 h4 35 Nd4 Kf7 36 Kg2 Rh8 37 +gxh4 Nxh4+ 38 Kf1 g3 39 f3 Ng6 40 b5 Nf4 41 Ne2 Rh1+ 42 Ng1 Rxg1+ +43 Kxg1 Ne2+ 44 Kg2 Nxc3 45 Rd3 Ne2 46 Rb3 Nf4+ 47 Kf1 g2+ 48 Kf2 +Re6 49 Re3 Nh3+ 50 Ke2 Qxe3+ 51 Kd1 Qd3+ 52 Kc1 g1/R mate 0-1 + +Patrick Wolff -- Renaissance SPARC +4th Harvard Cup (2) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 Nf3 d6 3 d4 Nf6 4 Nc3 cxd4 5 Nxd4 g6 6 Be3 Bg7 7 f3 0-0 +8 Qd2 Nc6 9 Bc4 Qa5 10 0-0-0 Bd7 11 Bb3 Rfc8 12 h4 Ne5 13 Kb1 Nc4 +14 Bxc4 Rxc4 15 Nb3 Qc7 16 h5 gxh5 17 Bh6 Kh8 18 Bxg7+ Kxg7 19 Nd5 +Nxd5 20 Qg5+ Kf8 21 exd5 Rc8 22 Qh6+ Ke8 23 Qxh7 Kd8 24 Rd2 Be8 25 +Re1 a5 26 Nd4 Rb4 27 Qe4 Qd7 28 Rde2 Rc7 29 a3 Rb6 30 Kc1 Qa4 31 +Nf5 Qb3 32 Qxe7+ Rxe7 33 cxb3 Rxe2 34 Rxe2 Bd7 35 Nd4 h4 36 Kd2 +Bc8 37 Re1 h3 38 g4 a4 39 b4 Bd7 40 Rh1 Ra6 41 Rxh3 Rb6 42 Rh7 Be8 +43 g5 Kc8 44 f4 Ra6 45 f5 Rb6 46 f6 Kd8 47 g6 fxg6 48 Ne6+ Kc8 49 +Re7 Bf7 50 Rxf7 Kb8 51 Rd7 Ka7 52 f7 1-0 + +Boris Gulko -- ChessSystem R30 +4th Harvard Cup (2) 1993 +1 d4 c6 2 Nf3 Nf6 3 Bf4 d6 4 e3 Nd5 5 Bg3 Qb6 6 Qc1 g6 7 c4 Nf6 8 +Nc3 Bf5 9 Be2 Bg7 10 0-0 0-0 11 c5 dxc5 12 Na4 Qb4 13 Nxc5 Nbd7 14 +a3 Qb6 15 Na4 Qb3 16 Nc3 Nb6 17 Nd2 Qe6 18 Re1 Nfd5 19 e4 Nxc3 20 +bxc3 Bg4 21 f3 Bh5 22 Rb1 Rfc8 23 Qc2 c5 24 d5 Qf6 25 e5 Qg5 26 f4 +Qh6 27 c4 Bxe2 28 Rxe2 Qh5 29 Nf3 Rc7 30 h3 Qf5 31 Qxf5 gxf5 32 +Rc2 Bh6 33 Ne1 Bg7 34 Nd3 f6 35 Bf2 fxe5 36 fxe5 Na4 37 Re1 Rac8 +38 Nf4 Rd7 39 Bh4 b5 40 cxb5 c4 41 e6 Rb7 42 Bxe7 Bc3 43 Rd1 Rxe7 +44 d6 Rg7 45 Nd5 Rb8 46 Nxc3 Nc5 47 Re2 Kf8 48 Rd5 Rg3 49 Rxc5 +Rxc3 50 d7 Ke7 51 Rc8 Rd3 52 Rxb8 1-0 + + +ROUND 3 + +Boris Gulko -- Kasparov's Gambit +4th Harvard Cup (3) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 Bf4 Nc6 3 Nf3 e6 4 c4 Bb4+ 5 Nbd2 d6 6 a3 Bxd2+ 7 Qxd2 +0-0 8 e3 Qe8 9 Be2 e5 10 Bg3 e4 11 Ng1 Bf5 12 Bh4 Qe7 13 Bd1 a6 14 +Ne2 h6 15 Nc3 g5 16 Bg3 Rad8 17 h4 g4 18 h5 d5 19 cxd5 Nxd5 20 +Nxd5 Rxd5 21 Bb3 Rd7 22 Rc1 Be6 23 Bxe6 Qxe6 24 Rc5 f5 25 0-0 Qf7 +26 Qc2 Rfd8 27 Rc1 Re8 28 Qc4 Qxc4 29 R1xc4 Rf8 30 b4 Rff7 31 a4 +Ne7 32 Bxc7 Nd5 33 Be5 Nb6 34 Rc1 Nxa4 35 Rc8+ Rf8 36 Rxf8+ Kxf8 +37 Rc8+ Ke7 38 Rh8 Nb2 39 Rxh6 Nd3 40 Rh7+ Ke6 41 Rxd7 1-0 + +Michael Rohde -- BattleChess 4000 SVGA +4th Harvard Cup (3) 1993 +1 Nf3 Nf6 2 c4 g6 3 Nc3 d5 4 cxd5 Nxd5 5 Qa4+ Nc6 6 Nxd5 Qxd5 7 e4 +Qe6 8 Bb5 Bd7 9 0-0 Bg7 10 d3 Qd6 11 Be3 Bxb2 12 Rab1 Bg7 13 d4 a6 +14 e5 Qe6 15 d5 Qxd5 16 Rfd1 Qe6 17 Bc4 Nxe5 18 Bxe6 Nxf3+ 19 gxf3 +Bxa4 20 Bb3 Bc6 21 Bd5 Bxd5 22 Rxd5 e6 23 Rd2 b6 24 Rc2 Be5 25 f4 +Bd6 26 Kg2 0-0 27 Rc6 Rfd8 28 Kf3 Kf8 29 Ke2 Ke7 30 h3 Kf6 31 Rd1 +Rab8 32 Kf3 Kf5 33 Rg1 h6 34 h4 Rd7 35 Rcc1 Be7 36 Rh1 h5 37 Rc6 +Rb7 38 Rh2 Rd3 39 Rh1 Bd6 40 Rg1 Bxf4 [time] 0-1 + +Socrates Exp -- Alexander Ivanov +4th Harvard Cup (3) 1993 +1 e4 g6 2 d4 Bg7 3 Nf3 d6 4 Be2 b6 5 0-0 Bb7 6 Nc3 e6 7 d5 e5 8 +Be3 Nd7 9 a4 Ne7 10 a5 a6 11 axb6 cxb6 12 Qd2 0-0 13 Bh6 b5 14 +Bxg7 Kxg7 15 Rfe1 h6 16 Rad1 Rc8 17 Bd3 Qc7 18 Nh4 g5 19 Nf3 Nc5 +20 Rc1 Ng6 21 Qe3 Qd7 22 Bf1 b4 23 Na2 a5 24 Nd2 f5 25 exf5 Rxf5 +26 Nc4 Qc7 27 Qh3 Rcf8 28 Ne3 R5f6 29 Qh5 Bc8 30 Qe2 Rxf2 31 Qxf2 +Rxf2 32 Kxf2 Ne4+ 33 Kg1 Qf7 34 Bd3 Qf2+ 35 Kh1 Nc5 36 Re2 Qh4 37 +Bf5 Ba6 38 g3 Qd4 39 c3 bxc3 40 bxc3 Qa4 41 c4 Ne7 42 Rcc2 Qe8 43 +Rf2 Bc8 44 Bxc8 Qxc8 45 Nc3 Nd3 46 Rfd2 Nb4 47 Rb2 Qc5 48 Re2 Qd4 +49 Nb5 Qe4+ 50 Kg1 Qg6 51 Nc7 Kg8 52 Ne6 Qd3 53 Re1 Ng6 54 Rbb1 h5 +55 Nxg5 h4 56 Rbd1 Qb3 57 Ne4 Nd3 58 Rb1 Qa2 59 Rb8+ Kf7 60 Rf1+ +Ke7 61 Nf5+ Kd7 62 Rb7+ Kd8 63 Nxd6 h3 64 Rf8+ Nxf8 65 Nf7+ 1-0 + +Joel Benjamin -- M-Chess Professional 3.42 +4th Harvard Cup (3) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 Nf3 d5 3 c4 e6 4 Nc3 c5 5 cxd5 exd5 6 Bg5 Be7 7 e3 Nc6 +8 dxc5 0-0 9 Rc1 h6 10 Bh4 Be6 11 Be2 Bxc5 12 Nxd5 Qa5+ 13 Qd2 +Qxd2+ 14 Nxd2 Bxd5 15 Rxc5 g5 16 Bg3 Bxg2 17 Rg1 Bh3 18 f4 Nh7 19 +Nf3 Rfc8 20 fxg5 b6 21 Rc3 hxg5 22 Ba6 Bg4 23 Bxc8 Rxc8 24 Ne5 +Nxe5 25 Bxe5 Rxc3 26 Bxc3 Be6 27 Kf2 f6 28 Bd4 a6 29 a3 b5 30 Rc1 +Bc4 31 Rc3 Kf7 32 b3 Bd5 33 Rc7+ Kg6 34 b4 Nf8 35 Ra7 Ne6 36 Rxa6 +Nxd4 37 exd4 Kf5 38 Ke3 Kg6 39 Rd6 Bb3 40 Rb6 Bc4 41 Rc6 Bb3 42 +Rc3 Be6 43 Rc5 Bd7 44 d5 f5 45 Rc7 f4+ 46 Kd4 Bf5 47 d6 Kf6 48 d7 +Ke7 49 d8/Q+ Kxd8 50 Rc5 Bd7 51 Rxg5 f3 52 Ke3 f2 53 Kxf2 Ke7 54 +h4 Kf6 55 Ke3 Be8 56 Kf4 Bc6 57 h5 1-0 + +Renaissance SPARC -- Ilya Gurevich +4th Harvard Cup (3) 1993 +1 Nf3 Nf6 2 d4 g6 3 c4 Bg7 4 Nc3 d5 5 Qa4+ Bd7 6 Qb3 dxc4 7 Qxc4 +a6 8 Bf4 b5 9 Qc5 0-0 10 Bxc7 Qc8 11 Be5 Qxc5 12 dxc5 Nc6 13 e3 +Nxe5 14 Nxe5 Rfc8 15 Nd3 Bf5 16 a4 Bxd3 17 Bxd3 b4 18 Na2 Nd7 19 +c6 Nc5 20 Nxb4 a5 21 Rc1 Nb3 22 Rc4 axb4 23 Rxb4 Na5 24 Be4 Nxc6 +25 Bxc6 Rxc6 26 0-0 Rc2 27 b3 Bf6 28 Rd1 Ra2 29 Rb7 Rc8 30 g3 Rcc2 +31 Rf1 Bg5 32 Kg2 Bxe3 33 Rxe7 Bxf2 34 Kh3 h5 35 Kh4 Kg7 36 Kh3 +Kh6 37 Rxf7 Bg1 38 g4 Rxh2+ 39 Kg3 h4+ 40 Kf4 Rhf2+ 41 Ke4 Rxf7 42 +Rxf7 h3 43 Rf8 h2 44 Rh8+ Kg5 45 Kd3 Kxg4 46 Rh6 g5 47 Rh7 Kg3 48 +Rh5 g4 49 a5 Kg2 50 Ke4 h1/Q 0-1 + +ChessSystem R30 -- Patrick Wolff +4th Harvard Cup (3) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 c3 Nf6 3 e5 Nd5 4 d4 cxd4 5 cxd4 d6 6 Nf3 Nc6 7 Nc3 dxe5 +8 dxe5 Nxc3 9 Qxd8+ Nxd8 10 bxc3 Bd7 11 Bd3 e6 12 0-0 Rc8 13 Bd2 +h6 14 Rfe1 Bc5 15 Nd4 0-0 16 Nb3 Be7 17 Rad1 Nc6 18 f4 Rfd8 19 Be3 +Be8 20 Bf2 Kf8 21 Re3 b6 22 Rh3 Nb8 23 Bd4 Ba4 24 f5 exf5 25 Bxf5 +Bd7 26 Rf3 Kg8 27 Bxd7 Rxd7 28 Re1 Nc6 29 Rxf7 Nxd4 30 Nxd4 Kxf7 +31 e6+ Ke8 32 exd7+ Kxd7 33 Rd1 Bf6 34 Nb5+ Ke6 35 Nxa7 Rxc3 36 +Nb5 Rc6 37 Re1+ Kd5 38 Rd1+ Kc4 39 Rc1+ Kd5 40 Rd1+ Ke4 41 a4 Ke3 +42 Re1+ Kd3 43 Kf2 Kc2 44 Kf3 Kb3 45 Re4 Rc4 46 Rxc4 Kxc4 47 Nc7 +Kb4 48 Nd5+ Ka5 49 Ke4 Bd8 50 Nc3 Kb4 51 Kd3 Kb3 52 g3 Be7 53 Nd5 +Bc5 54 Nc3 Bb4 55 Nd5 Ba5 56 Ne7 h5 57 Nd5 Kxa4 58 Nf4 b5 59 Nxh5 +Ka3 60 Nxg7 b4 61 Nf5 b3 62 Ne3 Bc7 63 Nd5 b2 64 Kc2 Ka2 65 Nc3+ +Ka1 1/2-1/2 + + +ROUND 4 + +Joel Benjamin -- Kasparov's Gambit +4th Harvard Cup (4) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 Nf3 d5 3 c4 e6 4 Nc3 Be7 5 Bg5 0-0 6 e3 h6 7 Bh4 Ne4 8 +Bxe7 Qxe7 9 Rc1 Nxc3 10 Rxc3 c6 11 Bd3 dxc4 12 Rxc4 Nd7 13 0-0 e5 +14 dxe5 Nxe5 15 Re4 Nxf3+ 16 Qxf3 Be6 17 Bc4 Rad8 18 Bxe6 fxe6 19 +Qe2 Rd5 20 h3 Rfd8 21 b4 Rd2 22 Qc4 R8d5 23 a4 Kh8 24 b5 c5 25 a5 +b6 26 a6 e5 27 Rg4 Qd7 28 Rg6 Rb2 29 Rc6 Rb4 30 Qe2 Rd2 31 Qf3 Kg8 +32 Qg3 Rxb5 33 Rxh6 Qd3 34 Re1 Rbb2 35 Rg6 Qd7 36 Qxe5 Rxf2 37 Kh2 +Ra2 38 e4 Rad2 39 Re3 Rf7 40 Reg3 Re7 41 Qb8+ Qd8 42 Qf4 Rd4 43 +Qg5 Qd7 44 e5 Rd5 45 Qh4 Rexe5 46 Rh6 Qe7 47 Rh8+ Kf7 48 Rf3+ Ke6 +49 Qg4+ Kd6 50 Qc8 Qc7 51 Qa8 Kd7 52 Rg3 Rg5 53 Re8 Kd6 54 Rge3 c4 +55 Rd8+ Qxd8 56 Qxd8+ Kc6 57 Qc8+ Kb5 58 Qc7 Rd2 59 Rg3 Rxg3 60 +Kxg3 Kxa6 61 Qxc4+ Kb7 62 h4 a5 63 Qf4 [time] 1-0 + +BattleChess 4000 SVGA -- Patrick Wolff +4th Harvard Cup (4) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 Nf3 d6 3 d4 cxd4 4 Nxd4 Nf6 5 Nc3 Nc6 6 Bg5 e6 7 Qd2 Be7 +8 0-0-0 0-0 9 Nb3 Qb6 10 f3 Rd8 11 Be3 Qc7 12 Qf2 d5 13 Kb1 dxe4 +14 Rxd8+ Bxd8 15 Nxe4 Nxe4 16 fxe4 b6 17 Bf4 e5 18 Be3 Be6 19 Bb5 +Be7 20 Rd1 Nd8 21 Qg3 Nb7 22 Bh6 Bf6 23 Rf1 Qd8 24 Be3 Nd6 25 Rd1 +Qc7 26 Bd3 Qc6 27 Nd2 Rc8 28 Rf1 Kh8 29 h4 Nc4 30 Nxc4 Bxc4 31 Bf2 +Bxh4 32 Qh3 Bxd3 33 Qxd3 Rd8 34 Qe2 Bxf2 35 Qxf2 Qxe4 36 Qxf7 Qf4 +37 a3 Rd1+ 38 Rxd1 Qxf7 39 Rd8+ Qg8 40 Rxg8+ Kxg8 41 b4 h5 42 c4 +h4 43 c5 bxc5 44 bxc5 Kf7 45 Kc2 g5 46 Kd3 g4 47 c6 Ke6 48 Ke3 Kd6 +49 Ke2 Kxc6 50 Kf1 h3 51 gxh3 gxh3 52 Kf2 e4 0-1 + +Ilya Gurevich -- Socrates Exp +4th Harvard Cup (4) 1993 +1 e4 e5 2 Nf3 Nf6 3 Nxe5 d6 4 Nf3 Nxe4 5 d3 Nf6 6 d4 g6 7 Bd3 Bg7 +8 Qe2+ Be6 9 Ng5 Qe7 10 0-0 Nc6 11 c3 Bf5 12 Qxe7+ Nxe7 13 Bxf5 +Nxf5 14 Re1+ Kf8 15 Na3 h6 16 Nf3 Re8 17 Bf4 g5 18 Bg3 Nd5 19 Nc2 +Nde7 20 Re4 Nxg3 21 hxg3 f5 22 Re2 Nd5 23 Rae1 Rxe2 24 Rxe2 Kf7 25 +Kf1 Bf6 26 Nd2 h5 27 Nc4 h4 28 N4e3 hxg3 29 fxg3 Ne7 30 Kf2 Rh7 31 +Nb4 Rh2 32 Nbd5 Nxd5 33 Nxd5 Bd8 34 Ne3 Kg6 35 g4 f4 36 Nf5 Bf6 37 +Re8 Rh8 38 Rxh8 Bxh8 39 Kf3 Kf6 40 Ke4 Ke6 41 d5+ Kf7 42 g3 fxg3 +43 Nxg3 Be5 44 Ne2 Kg6 45 Nc1 Kf6 46 Nd3 Bh2 47 c4 a5 48 a3 a4 49 +Kd4 Bg1+ 50 Kc3 Bc5 51 b4 axb3 52 Kxb3 Bd4 53 Kb4 Ke7 54 Kb5 Kd7 +55 a4 c6+ 56 Kb4 Be3 57 Kc3 c5 58 Ne1 Bf4 59 Nf3 b6 60 Ng1 Ke7 61 +Ne2 Be5+ 62 Kd3 Kf6 63 Ke4 Bb2 64 Ng3 Bc1 65 Nh1 Bf4 66 Nf2 Be5 67 +Kf3 Ke7 68 Ne4 Bf4 69 Ke2 Kd7 70 Kd3 Ke7 71 Kc2 Ke8 72 Kb3 Ke7 73 +a5 bxa5 74 Ka4 Kd7 75 Kxa5 Kd8 76 Kb6 Kd7 77 Kb7 Be3 78 Nc3 Bd2 79 +Na4 Ba5 80 Nb6+ Ke8 81 Kc6 Kd8 82 Nd7 Ke7 83 Nb8 Bc3 84 Kc7 Ba5+ +85 Kc8 Kf6 86 Kd7 Be1 87 Kxd6 Bg3+ 88 Kxc5 Bxb8 89 Kc6 Be5 90 d6 +Ke6 91 c5 Bf4 92 Kb7 Bxd6 93 cxd6 Kxd6 94 Kb6 Ke5 95 Kc5 Kf4 96 +Kd4 Kxg4 97 Ke4 Kg3 98 Kf5 g4 99 Ke4 Kf2 100 Kf4 g3 [time] 1/2-1/2 + +M-Chess Professional 3.42 -- Boris Gulko +4th Harvard Cup (4) 1993 +1 e4 g6 2 d4 Bg7 3 Nc3 Nc6 4 d5 Nb8 5 Nf3 d6 6 Bd3 Nf6 7 0-0 0-0 8 +h3 Nbd7 9 Be3 c6 10 Bd4 Qc7 11 Be2 Re8 12 Qd2 a6 13 Qg5 c5 14 Be3 +b5 15 Qh4 b4 16 Na4 e6 17 dxe6 Rxe6 18 Ng5 Re7 19 Bc4 Bb7 20 Rad1 +Ne5 21 Bd5 Bxd5 22 exd5 Rae8 23 Nxc5 h6 24 Nge4 Nxe4 25 Nxe4 Nd7 +26 Ng3 Qxc2 27 Qxb4 Qxb2 28 Qxb2 Bxb2 29 Bxh6 Ba3 30 f3 f5 31 Bg5 +Re5 32 Bf4 R5e7 33 Kh2 Nb6 34 h4 Kf7 35 h5 Kf6 36 h6 Rh7 37 Rd3 +Bc5 38 Bc1 g5 39 Bb2+ Kg6 40 Bd4 Rxh6+ 41 Kg1 Bxd4+ 42 Rxd4 Rh4 43 +Rd2 Re5 44 Rb1 Rxd5 45 Rxd5 Nxd5 46 Rd1 Ne3 47 Rxd6+ Kf7 48 Rxa6 +Rc4 49 Ra3 Rc1+ 50 Kh2 Re1 51 Rb3 Kg6 52 a4 f4 53 Rb6+ Kg7 54 Nh5+ +Kf7 55 g3 Nf1+ 56 Kg2 Nxg3 57 Nxg3 fxg3 58 a5 Ra1 59 a6 Ra4 60 +Kxg3 Kg7 61 Kf2 Ra3 62 Ke2 Kh7 63 Rc6 Kg7 64 Rd6 Kh7 65 Rb6 Kg7 66 +Re6 Kh7 67 Rd6 Kg7 68 Rd7+ Kg6 69 a7 Kf5 70 Rf7+ Kg6 71 Rb7 Kf5 72 +Rc7 Kf6 73 Rh7 Kf5 74 Rb7 Kf4 75 Rf7+ Ke5 76 Kf2 Ke6 77 Rg7 Kf6 78 +Rc7 Kg6 79 Re7 Kf6 80 Rh7 Kg6 81 Rd7 Kf6 82 Rb7 Kg6 83 Ke1 Kf5 84 +Kd2 Kf4 85 Rf7+ Ke5 86 Rd7 Kf4 87 Kc2 Ra6 88 Rf7+ Ke3 89 Kc3 Ra1 +90 Kc4 Ra2 91 Kc5 Ra1 92 Kb6 Rb1+ 93 Kc7 Rc1+ 94 Kb8 Rb1+ 95 Rb7 +Ra1 96 Rb3+ Kf4 97 a8/Q Rxa8+ 98 Kxa8 1/2-1/2 + +Renaissance SPARC -- Michael Rohde +4th Harvard Cup (4) 1993 +1 Nf3 Nf6 2 d4 e6 3 c4 b6 4 Nc3 Bb4 5 Bg5 h6 6 Bd2 Bb7 7 e3 0-0 8 +Bd3 d6 9 0-0 Nbd7 10 Qa4 c5 11 a3 Bxc3 12 Bxc3 Ne4 13 Be1 Rc8 14 +d5 Ndf6 15 dxe6 fxe6 16 Nh4 Ng4 17 Ng6 Qg5 18 Nxf8 Nxe3 19 fxe3 +Nd2 20 Bh7+ Kh8 21 Bg3 Nxf1 22 Nxe6 Qxe3+ 23 Kxf1 Qxe6 24 Qc2 Qe3 +25 Bxd6 Re8 26 Bg6 Re6 27 Bg3 Rxg6 28 Re1 Qg5 29 Re5 Qf6+ 30 Kg1 +Bc6 31 Qe2 Kh7 32 Qd3 Qf7 33 b4 cxb4 34 axb4 Qd7 35 Qxd7 Bxd7 36 +Re7 Bf5 37 Rxa7 Re6 38 Rc7 Re2 39 Bf2 Be4 40 g4 Kg8 41 Bxb6 Rg2+ +42 Kf1 Rxg4 43 Rd7 Bf5 44 Rd8+ Kf7 45 Bd4 Bd3+ 46 Kf2 Bxc4 47 Kf3 +Rg5 48 Rd7+ Kf8 49 Rc7 Bb5 50 Kf4 Rg2 51 h3 Bd3 52 Kf3 Rg5 1/2-1/2 + +Alexander Ivanov -- ChessSystem R30 +4th Harvard Cup (4) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 Nf3 Nc6 3 d4 cxd4 4 Nxd4 Nf6 5 Nc3 g6 6 Nxc6 bxc6 7 e5 +Ng8 8 Bc4 Bg7 9 Bf4 Qa5 10 0-0 Bxe5 11 Bxe5 Qxe5 12 Re1 Qf4 13 Re4 +Qf6 14 Re3 d5 15 Bxd5 Bf5 16 Ne4 Bxe4 17 Bxe4 Rc8 18 c3 Nh6 19 Qa4 +Kf8 20 Qxa7 Ng4 21 Rg3 Qe6 22 Qd4 Nf6 23 Bd3 c5 24 Qe3 Qxe3 25 +Rxe3 c4 26 Bf1 e6 27 a4 Ke7 28 a5 Rc5 29 Ra4 Nd5 30 Re2 Ra8 31 Rd2 +Raxa5 32 Rxa5 Rxa5 33 Bxc4 Ra1+ 34 Bf1 Ra2 35 Re2 h5 36 g3 g5 37 +Rc2 g4 38 Bc4 Ra1+ 39 Kg2 Kd6 40 Rd2 Kc5 41 Bxd5 exd5 42 Rd4 Ra7 +43 b4+ Kc6 44 c4 dxc4 45 Rxc4+ Kb5 46 Rc5+ Kxb4 47 Rxh5 Kc3 48 Rf5 +Rc7 49 Rf4 Kd3 50 Rxg4 f6 51 Rf4 Rf7 52 h4 Rf8 53 g4 Rg8 54 Kf3 +Rg6 55 h5 Rh6 56 Rf5 Kd4 57 Kf4 Kd3 58 f3 Kd4 59 Ra5 Kd3 60 Ra3+ +Kc4 61 Kf5 Kb5 62 Re3 Kc5 63 Re6 Kd5 64 Rxf6 1-0 + + +ROUND 5 + +Kasparov's Gambit -- Michael Rohde +4th Harvard Cup (5) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 c4 e6 3 Nc3 Bb4 4 Nf3 b6 5 Bg5 h6 6 Bd2 Bb7 7 e3 0-0 8 +Bd3 d6 9 0-0 Nbd7 10 a3 Bxc3 11 Bxc3 Ne4 12 Be1 f5 13 Nd2 Ndf6 14 +f3 Ng5 15 Bg3 Qe7 16 b4 Rad8 17 Qa4 a6 18 Kh1 Rb8 19 Rae1 Ba8 20 +Qxa6 Bc6 21 c5 d5 22 Bc2 Qd7 23 cxb6 Bb5 24 bxc7 Bxa6 25 cxb8/Q +Rxb8 26 Bxb8 Bxf1 27 h4 Nf7 28 Rxf1 Qc8 29 Bxf5 exf5 30 Bf4 Qc3 31 +Nb1 Qb2 32 Bg3 Nh5 33 Kh2 Nxg3 34 Kxg3 Nd6 35 Re1 Nc4 36 Kh3 Qf2 +0-1 + +Boris Gulko -- BattleChess 4000 SVGA +4th Harvard Cup (5) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 Bf4 d5 3 e3 Bf5 4 c4 Nc6 5 Nc3 e6 6 Nf3 Bb4 7 a3 Bxc3+ +8 bxc3 0-0 9 Bg5 Qe7 10 Bd3 Bxd3 11 Qxd3 dxc4 12 Qxc4 h6 13 Bh4 +Qd8 14 0-0 Qd5 15 Qd3 Ne4 16 Rab1 Nd6 17 Nd2 Ne5 18 Qe2 Ng6 19 Bg3 +Qc6 20 c4 Nf5 21 Rb4 Nxg3 22 hxg3 b6 23 Qh5 Rad8 24 Rc1 Rd6 25 Qb5 +e5 26 Qxc6 Rxc6 27 d5 Rd6 28 e4 Re8 29 c5 Rd7 30 Ra4 Ra8 31 cxb6 +cxb6 32 Rc6 Re8 33 Rac4 f6 34 a4 Ra8 35 Kf1 Kf7 36 Nf3 Ne7 37 Rc7 +Ke8 38 Rc2 Kd8 39 R7c3 Rc8 40 Rxc8+ Nxc8 41 Ke2 Nd6 42 Kd3 f5 43 +Nxe5 fxe4+ 44 Kd4 Rc7 45 Nc6+ Ke8 46 g4 Kd7 47 Re2 Kc8 48 Ke5 Kd7 +49 Rc2 Rc8 50 Kd4 Rc7 51 Rc3 Ke8 52 Ke5 Kd7 53 Kd4 Ke8 54 Re3 Kf7 +55 f3 exf3 56 gxf3 h5 57 Re6 Rxc6 58 dxc6 Kxe6 59 gxh5 Ne8 60 Kc4 +Kd6 61 Kd4 Nf6 62 c7 Kxc7 63 Ke5 Nh5 64 Kf5 Ng3+ 65 Kg6 Ne2 66 +Kxg7 Nd4 67 f4 Ne6+ 68 Kf6 Nxf4 69 Ke5 Ne2 70 Kd5 Nc3+ 71 Kc4 Nxa4 +72 Kb5 Nc5 73 Kb4 Kd6 74 Kb5 Kd5 75 Kb4 a6 76 Kc3 a5 77 Kb2 b5 78 +Kc3 b4+ 79 Kb2 Kc4 80 Kc2 Nd3 81 Kd2 b3 82 Ke3 b2 83 Ke4 a4 84 Kf5 +a3 85 Ke6 Nb4 [time] 1/2-1/2 + +Patrick Wolff -- Socrates Exp +4th Harvard Cup (5) 1993 +1 e4 e5 2 Nf3 Nf6 3 Nc3 Bb4 4 Nxe5 0-0 5 Be2 Re8 6 Nd3 Bxc3 7 dxc3 +Nxe4 8 c4 d6 9 0-0 Nc6 10 Nf4 Ne5 11 f3 Nc5 12 Re1 Bf5 13 Be3 Ng6 +14 Qd2 Bxc2 15 Nh5 Bf5 16 g4 Bd7 17 b4 Ne6 18 f4 Nef8 19 f5 Ne5 20 +Bh6 Qh4 21 Qf4 Bc6 22 Bxg7 Nf3+ 23 Bxf3 Rxe1+ 24 Rxe1 Qxe1+ 25 Kg2 +Bxf3+ 26 Qxf3 Qxb4 27 Bc3 Qxc4 28 Nf6+ Kh8 29 Qe3 Qxa2+ 30 Kh3 Qb1 +31 Nd5+ f6 32 Nxf6 Qf1+ 33 Kh4 Qc4 34 Nxh7+ Qxc3 35 Qxc3+ Kxh7 36 +Qxc7+ Kg8 37 f6 Ne6 38 Qe7 Kh8 39 Qxe6 Rf8 40 g5 a5 41 g6 Rg8 42 +Qf7 Rxg6 43 Qxg6 a4 44 Qg7 mate 1-0 + +M-Chess Professional 3.42 -- Ilya Gurevich +4th Harvard Cup (5) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 Nf3 e6 3 d4 cxd4 4 Nxd4 a6 5 Bd3 Qc7 6 0-0 Nf6 7 Be3 Be7 +8 Nc3 d6 9 Qf3 Nbd7 10 Qg3 0-0 11 Be2 Re8 12 Bh6 Bf8 13 Bd2 b5 14 +a3 Bb7 15 f3 Rac8 16 Kh1 d5 17 Qxc7 Rxc7 18 exd5 Nxd5 19 Bd3 Nc5 +20 Nxd5 Bxd5 21 Be2 g6 22 Bg5 Rcc8 23 Rfd1 Na4 24 Rab1 Ba2 25 Ra1 +Nxb2 26 Rxa2 Nxd1 27 Bxd1 Red8 28 Bxd8 Rxd8 29 c3 e5 30 Rd2 exd4 +31 Rxd4 Rxd4 32 cxd4 Bxa3 33 Kg1 Bb2 34 d5 Kf8 35 Kf2 Ke7 36 Ke3 +Kd6 37 Kd3 a5 38 Be2 Be5 39 Kc2 b4 40 Kb3 Bxh2 41 Ka4 Kxd5 42 Bd1 +Kd4 43 Kxa5 Bd6 44 Bb3 Ke3 45 Bxf7 Kf2 46 Bd5 Kxg2 47 Be4 Kg3 48 +Kb5 Kf4 49 Kc6 h5 50 Kxd6 h4 51 Bxg6 h3 52 Kc5 h2 53 Kxb4 h1/Q 54 +Be4 Qc1 0-1 + +Alexander Ivanov -- Renaissance SPARC +4th Harvard Cup (5) 1993 +1 e4 c6 2 d4 d5 3 e5 Bf5 4 h4 h5 5 c4 e6 6 Nc3 Nd7 7 cxd5 cxd5 8 +Bg5 Be7 9 Qd2 Bxg5 10 hxg5 Rc8 11 Be2 Bg6 12 Nb5 Rc2 13 Qb4 Qxg5 +14 Nf3 Qxg2 15 Rg1 Qh3 16 Nd6+ Kd8 17 Nxb7+ Kc7 18 Qd6+ Kc8 19 Ba6 +Rc7 20 Nc5+ Kd8 21 Ng5 Qf5 22 Ngxe6+ fxe6 23 Nxe6+ Qxe6 24 Qxe6 +Ne7 25 Rxg6 Rc6 26 Qxc6 Nxc6 27 Rxc6 1-0 + +ChessSystem R30 -- Joel Benjamin +4th Harvard Cup (5) 1993 +1 e4 c5 2 c3 d5 3 exd5 Qxd5 4 d4 Nf6 5 Nf3 Nc6 6 dxc5 Qxd1+ 7 Kxd1 +e5 8 b4 Bf5 9 Nbd2 0-0-0 10 b5 Na5 11 Nxe5 Bxc5 12 Nxf7 Ne4 13 Ke1 +Nxf2 14 Be2 Nxh1 15 Nxh8 Rxh8 16 g4 Bg6 17 a4 Nf2 18 Ba3 Re8 19 +Bxc5 Nd3+ 20 Kf1 Nxc5 21 Ra3 Rf8+ 22 Kg1 Rd8 23 Nf3 Nab3 24 c4 Nd4 +25 Nxd4 Rxd4 26 a5 Bd3 27 Bxd3 Rxd3 28 Rxd3 Nxd3 29 h3 Kc7 30 Kg2 +Kd6 31 Kf3 Ne5+ 32 Ke4 Nxc4 33 Kd4 Nxa5 0-1 + + +ROUND 6 + +Kasparov's Gambit -- Patrick Wolff +4th Harvard Cup (6) 1993 +1 d4 Nf6 2 c4 c5 3 d5 b5 4 cxb5 a6 5 bxa6 g6 6 e4 Nxe4 7 Qa4 Nf6 8 +a7 Na6 9 Nf3 Bg7 10 Bxa6 Rxa7 11 Nc3 0-0 12 Qc4 Bxa6 13 Qxc5 Qb8 +14 a4 Rc8 15 Qa3 Rb7 16 a5 Rb3 17 Qa2 Ng4 18 h3 Ne5 19 Nxe5 Bxe5 +20 f4 Bxc3+ 21 bxc3 Rbxc3 22 Bd2 Rc2 23 Qb1 Rxd2 24 Qxb8 Re2+ 0-1 + +BattleChess 4000 SVGA -- Alexander Ivanov +4th Harvard Cup (6) 1993 +1 d4 g6 2 Nf3 Bg7 3 c3 d6 4 e4 Nf6 5 Bd3 Nbd7 6 0-0 e5 7 Bg5 h6 8 +Bd2 0-0 9 Na3 b6 10 Re1 Bb7 11 Nb5 a6 12 Na3 Re8 13 Qc2 exd4 14 +cxd4 d5 15 e5 Ne4 16 b4 c5 17 bxc5 bxc5 18 Rab1 Qc8 19 Bf4 g5 20 +Be3 cxd4 21 Bxd4 g4 22 e6 Rxe6 23 Bxg7 gxf3 24 Qxc8+ Bxc8 25 Bd4 +Ndc5 26 Bxe4 Nxe4 27 g3 Nd2 28 Rbd1 Re2 29 Nc2 Ne4 30 Nb4 Be6 31 +a3 Rc8 32 Rc1 Rc4 33 Red1 Rxd4 34 Rxd4 Rxf2 35 Kh1 Rg2 36 Rf1 Nf2+ +37 Rxf2 Rxf2 38 h4 Re2 39 Rf4 d4 40 Nd3 Bd5 41 Kg1 Rg2+ 42 Kf1 Rd2 +43 Ne5 d3 44 Rg4+ Kf8 45 Rd4 Be6 46 Nxf3 Ra2 47 Ke1 Rxa3 48 Kd2 +Ke7 49 Rxd3 Rxd3+ 50 Kxd3 Kd6 51 Ke4 Bd5+ 52 Kf4 Bxf3 53 Kxf3 Ke5 +54 Ke3 a5 55 Kd3 Kf5 56 Kc4 Kg4 57 Kd4 Kxg3 58 h5 Kg4 59 Kd3 f5 60 +Kc4 f4 61 Kd3 a4 62 Kc3 f3 63 Kb4 f2 64 Kxa4 f1/Q 65 Kb4 Kxh5 66 +Kc5 Kg4 67 Kd5 Kf5 68 Kd4 Qd1+ 69 Kc5 Ke5 70 Kb5 Kd5 71 Kb6 Kd6 72 +Kb7 Qb3+ 73 Ka8 Kc7 0-1 + +Socrates Exp -- Boris Gulko +4th Harvard Cup (6) 1993 +1 e4 g6 2 d4 Bg7 3 Nf3 d6 4 Be2 Nf6 5 Nc3 0-0 6 0-0 Nc6 7 d5 Nb8 8 +Bf4 Nh5 9 Be3 e5 10 dxe6 fxe6 11 Qd2 Nc6 12 Rad1 Qe7 13 Ng5 Bd7 14 +Nb5 Rac8 15 Bxh5 gxh5 16 f4 h6 17 Nf3 Rf7 18 Kh1 a6 19 Nc3 Rcf8 20 +g3 Qf6 21 Nh4 b5 22 a3 Na5 23 Qe1 Nc4 24 Bc1 Bc6 25 Rf3 Rd7 26 b3 +Nb6 27 Rfd3 Qf7 28 Nf3 Re7 29 Be3 Nd7 30 Bf2 Nf6 31 Bd4 Ng4 32 +Bxg7 Qxg7 33 h3 Nf6 34 Kh2 Nd7 35 Nd4 Bb7 36 Re3 h4 37 f5 Ne5 38 +gxh4 Kh8 39 Rg3 Qf6 40 Nxe6 Rxe6 41 fxe6 Nf3+ 42 Rxf3 Qxf3 43 Nd5 +Rg8 44 Qc3+ Qxc3 45 Nxc3 Re8 46 Nd5 Rxe6 47 Nxc7 Rxe4 48 Rxd6 Re2+ +49 Kg3 Rxc2 50 Nxa6 Rc3+ 51 Kg4 Bxa6 52 Rxh6+ Kg7 53 Rxa6 Rxb3 54 +h5 b4 55 h6+ Kh7 56 a4 Rc3 57 Rb6 Rc4+ 58 Kf3 b3 59 a5 Ra4 60 a6 +b2 61 Rxb2 Rxa6 62 Rb4 Kxh6 63 Kg4 Rc6 64 h4 Ra6 65 h5 Rc6 66 Re4 +Ra6 67 Rc4 Rb6 68 Ra4 Rc6 69 Rd4 Rb6 70 Rc4 Ra6 71 Re4 Rb6 72 Rf4 +Rc6 73 Rb4 Rd6 74 Rh4 Rc6 75 Rd4 Rb6 76 Rc4 Ra6 77 Re4 Rb6 78 Ra4 +Rc6 79 Kg4 Rb6 80 Rd4 Rc6 81 Rf4 1/2-1/2 + +Michael Rohde -- M-Chess Professional 3.42 +4th Harvard Cup (6) 1993 +1 Nf3 d5 2 c4 e6 3 d4 Nf6 4 Nc3 c5 5 cxd5 exd5 6 g3 Nc6 7 Bg2 Be7 +8 0-0 0-0 9 Bg5 cxd4 10 Nxd4 Re8 11 Rc1 Bg4 12 h3 Bd7 13 Nb3 Be6 +14 e3 Rc8 15 Qd2 Ne4 16 Nxe4 Bxg5 17 Nxg5 Qxg5 18 Rfd1 Qh5 19 Kh2 +Bg4 20 Re1 Bf3 21 Nd4 Bxg2 22 Kxg2 f6 23 Rc5 Nxd4 24 Qxd4 Rxc5 25 +Qxc5 b6 26 Qd4 Re4 27 Qd3 Ra4 28 Rc1 Rxa2 29 Rc8+ Kf7 30 Rc7+ Kf8 +31 Qb3 Ra5 32 Qb4+ Rc5 33 Rxc5 bxc5 34 Qxc5+ Kg8 35 Qxa7 Qe8 36 +Qd4 Qb5 37 b4 Kf7 38 Qa7+ Kf8 39 Qa5 Qb7 40 Qc5+ Ke8 41 Kf1 Qd7 42 +h4 Qh3+ 43 Ke1 Qh1+ 44 Ke2 Qe4 45 b5 Qg4+ 46 Ke1 Qd7 47 b6 h6 48 +Kd2 g6 49 Kc3 h5 50 Kb4 Qb7 51 Qd6 Qc8 52 Qxd5 Ke7 53 Qc5+ Kd7 54 +Qxc8+ Kxc8 55 e4 1-0 + +Joel Benjamin -- Renaissance SPARC +4th Harvard Cup (6) 1993 +1 d4 d5 2 c4 c6 3 Nc3 Nf6 4 e3 e6 5 Nf3 Nbd7 6 Bd3 Bd6 7 e4 dxe4 8 +Nxe4 Nxe4 9 Bxe4 0-0 10 0-0 c5 11 Bc2 Qb6 12 Qd3 g6 13 Be3 Be7 14 +Rad1 Qxb2 15 Rb1 Qxa2 16 Ra1 Qxa1 17 Rxa1 Rd8 18 dxc5 Nxc5 19 Qc3 +Bd7 20 Ne5 f5 21 Bxc5 Bxc5 22 Nxd7 Rxd7 23 Qe5 Bd4 24 Qxe6+ Rf7 25 +Rd1 Rd8 26 c5 Rdd7 27 Rxd4 Rde7 28 Bb3 Rxe6 29 Bxe6 1-0 + +Ilya Gurevich -- ChessSystem R30 +4th Harvard Cup (6) 1993 +1 e4 e5 2 Nf3 Nc6 3 Bb5 a6 4 Ba4 Nf6 5 0-0 Be7 6 Re1 b5 7 Bb3 0-0 +8 d4 Nxd4 9 Nxd4 exd4 10 e5 Ne8 11 c3 dxc3 12 Nxc3 Bb7 13 Nd5 d6 +14 e6 f5 15 Bf4 Nf6 16 Nxe7+ Qxe7 17 Rc1 Rae8 18 Qd4 Ne4 19 Qa7 c5 +20 Rxe4 fxe4 21 Bxd6 Qxd6 22 e7+ c4 23 exf8/Q+ Rxf8 24 Rd1 Qf6 25 +Bc2 Qxb2 26 Bb1 c3 27 Qc5 Qe2 28 Rf1 Qd2 29 Qe5 c2 30 Qe6+ Kh8 31 +Bxc2 Qxc2 32 Qe7 Qc8 33 h3 Bd5 34 a3 Qf5 35 Qa7 Bc4 36 Rd1 Bd3 37 +Rc1 Qf6 38 Qe3 a5 39 Rc7 b4 40 axb4 axb4 41 Rb7 Qc3 42 Qb6 Qa1+ 43 +Kh2 Qe5+ 44 Kg1 Qc3 45 Kh2 h6 46 h4 Qe5+ 47 Kg1 Rc8 48 g3 Qa1+ 49 +Kh2 Rc1 50 Kh3 Rh1+ 51 Kg4 Qe5 0-1 + diff --git a/programs/minimax.bib b/programs/minimax.bib new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6723d69 --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/minimax.bib @@ -0,0 +1,1338 @@ +@STRING{header = " +----------------------------------------------------------------------------- +File: minimax.bib +Version: V01-005 of April 2nd, 1993 +Author: Claude G. Diderich + 30, Avenue S.Reymondin, CH-1009 Pully, Switzerland, Europe + E-mail: [email protected] +Copyright: (c) 1992..93 by Claude G. Diderich, Switzerland + Non commercial usage permitted as long as the above copyright no- + tice is included. +Note: Please send all modifications and additions to this file to + [email protected] indicates if a copy of the article + is available to me (If you have a copy of an article marked NO, + I would be gratefull if you could send me a copy of it).Any other + indication in the AVAILABLE field are for personal use of the + author. +Thanks: I would like to thank the following persons (in alphabetical or- +MONTH der) for their contributions: + David Barnard <[email protected]>, + Bruno Charlier <[email protected]> + Van-Dat Cung <[email protected]>, + Rainer Feldmann <[email protected]>, + Marc Gengler <[email protected]>, + Rattikorn Hewett <[email protected]>, + Toshihide Ibaraki <[email protected]>, + L. V. Kale <[email protected]>, + Richard E. Korf <[email protected]>, + Bradley C. Kuszmauk <[email protected]>, + T. A. Marsland <[email protected]>, + Judea Pearl <[email protected]>, + Wim Pijls <[email protected]>, + Udo Sprute <[email protected]> +----------------------------------------------------------------------------- +"} + +@STRING{artint = "Artificial Intelligence"} +@STRING{ieeetoc = "{IEEE} Transactions on Computers"} +@STRING{ieeetopami = "{IEEE} Transactions on Pattern Analysis and + Machine Intelligence"} +@STRING{ijprai = "International Journal of Pattern + Recognition and Artificial Intelligence"} +@STRING{iccaj = "ICCA Journal"} +@STRING{jalgo = "Journal of Algorithms"} +@STRING{jpdc = "Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing"} +@STRING{parcomp = "Parallel Computing"} +@STRING{infocon = "Information and Control"} +@STRING{spex = "Software: Practice and Experience"} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Abra88, + AUTHOR = "Bruce Abramson and Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "A Model of Two-player Evaluation Functions", + BOOKTITLE = "Proceedings of the Sixth National Conference on Artificial + Intelligence (AAAI-87)", + ADDRESS = "Seattle, WA", + YEAR = 1987, + MONTH = Jul, + PAGES = "90--94", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Abra89, + AUTHOR = "Bruce Abramson", + TITLE = "Control Strategies for Two-Player Games", + JOURNAL = acmcs, + VOLUME = 21, + NUMBER = 2, + PAGES = "137--161", + MONTH = Jun, + YEAR = 1989 +} + + +@TECHREPORT{Akl79, + AUTHOR = "Selim G. Akl and David T. Barnard and Ralph J. Doran", + TITLE = "Searching Game Trees in Parallel", + INSTITUTION = "Queen's University, Department of Computing and + Information Science", + YEAR = 1979, + MONTH = Nov, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Akl80, + AUTHOR = "Selim G. Akl and David T. Barnard and Ralph J. Doran", + TITLE = "Simulation and Analysis in Deriving Time and Storage + Requirements for a Parallel Alpha-beta Algorithm", + BOOKTITLE = "International Conference on Parallel Processing", + PAGES = "231--234", + YEAR = 1980, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Akl82, + AUTHOR = "Akl, Selim G. and Barnard, David T. and Doran, Ralph J.", + TITLE = "Design, Analysis, and Implementation of a Parallel Tree + Search Algorithm", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + YEAR = 1982, + VOLUME = "PAMI-4", + NUMBER = 2, + MONTH = Mar, + PAGES = "192--203" +} + +@INBOOK{Akl89, + AUTHOR = "Selim G. Akl", + TITLE = "The Design and Analysis of Parallel Algorithms", + CHAPTER = "12 -- Traversing Combinatorial Spaces", + PAGES = "310--340", + PUBLISHER = "Prentice Hall", + ADDRESS = "Englewood Cliffs, NJ", + YEAR = 1989, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-BC" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Almq88, + AUTHOR = "Kenneth Almquist and Neil McKenzie and Kenneth Sloan", + TITLE = "An Inquiry into Parallel Algorithms for Searching + Game Trees", + INSTITUTION = "University of Washington, Department of Computer Science", + ADDRESS = "Seattle, WA", + YEAR = 1988, + MONTH = Dec, + NUMBER = "88-12-03" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Alth88, + AUTHOR = {Ingo Alth\"ofer}, + TITLE = "A Parallel Game Tree Search Algorithm with a Linear + Speedup", + YEAR = 1988, + MONTH = Dec, + NOTE = "submitted to Journal of Algorithms, accepted 1992", + INSTITUTION = {University of Bielefeld, Faculty for Mathematics}, + ADDRESS = "Bielefeld, Germany" +} + +@ARTICLE{Alth90, + AUTHOR = {Ingo Alth\"ofer}, + TITLE = "An Incremental Negamax Algorithm", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1990, + VOLUME = 43, + PAGES = "57--65" +} + +@ARTICLE{Alth91, + AUTHOR = {Ingo Alth\"ofer and Bernhard Balkenhol}, + TITLE = "A Game Tree with Distinct Leaf Values which is easy + for the Alpha-beta Algorithm", + JOURNAL = artint, + PAGES = "183--190", + VOLUME = 52, + YEAR = 1991, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Amig91, + AUTHOR = "Claude Amiguet", + TITLE = "Contr\^oleurs Distribu\'es pour la Programmation + Heuristique", + SCHOOL = "Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Department of + Computer Science", + NUMBER = 910, + ADDRESS = "Lausanne, Switzerland", + YEAR = 1991, + NOTE = "In french" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Bal86a, + AUTHOR = "Henri E. Bal and Robbert {van Renesse}", + TITLE = "Parallel Alpha-Beta Search", + BOOKTITLE = "Proceedings NGI-SION Symposium Stimulerende Informatica", + ADDRESS = "Utrecht, Netherlands", + PAGES = "379--385", + MONTH = Apr, + YEAR = 1986, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-LITH" +} + +@ARTICLE{Ball86b, + AUTHOR = "Henri E. Bal and Robbert {van Renesse}", + TITLE = "A Summary of Parallel Alpha-Beta Search Results", + JOURNAL = iccaj, + YEAR = 1986, + VOLUME = 9, + NUMBER = 3, + PAGES = "146--149", + MONTH = Sep, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Ball83, + AUTHOR = "Bruce W. Ballard", + TITLE = "The *-Minimax Search Procedure for Trees Containing Chance + Nodes", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 21, + PAGES = "327--350", + YEAR = 1983 +} + +@ARTICLE{Baud78a, + AUTHOR = "G\'erard M. Baudet", + TITLE = "On the Branching Factor of the Alpha-Beta Pruning + Algorithm", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 10, + PAGES = "173--199", + YEAR = 1978 +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Baud78b, + AUTHOR = "G\'erard M. Baudet", + TITLE = "The Design and Analysis of Algorithms for Asynchronous + Multiprocessors", + SCHOOL = "Carnegie Mellon University", + YEAR = 1978, + NUMBER = "CMU-CS-78-116", + ADDRESS = "Pittsburgh, PA", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS MICROFICHES" +} + +@INBOOK{Beal80, + AUTHOR = "D. F. Beal", + CHAPTER = "An Analysis of Minimax", + TITLE = "Advances in Computer Chess 2", + YEAR = 1980, + NOTE = "Editor: M. R. B. Clarke", + PAGES = "103--109", + PUBLISHER = "Edinburgh University Press.", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Berl75, + AUTHOR = "Hans Jack Berliner", + TITLE = "Chess as Problem Solving", + SCHOOL = "Carnegie Mellon University", + YEAR = 1975, + ADDRESS = "Pittsburgh, PA", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS MICROFICHES" +} + +@ARTICLE{Berl89, + AUTHOR = "Hans Jack Berliner and Carl Eberling", + TITLE = "Pattern Knowledge and Search: {T}he {SUPREME} + Architecture", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1989, + VOLUME = 38, + NUMBER = 2, + PAGES = "161--198" +} + +@ARTICLE{Berl90, + AUTHOR = "Hans Jack Berliner and Gordon Goetsch and + Murray S. Campbell and Carl Ebeling", + TITLE = "Measuring the Performance Potential of Chess Programs", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1990, + VOLUME = 43, + NUMBER = 1, + MONTH = Apr, + PAGES = "7--21", + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Bohm89, + AUTHOR = {Max B\"ohm and Ewald Speckenmeyer}, + TITLE = "A Dynamic Processor Tree for Solving Game Trees in + Parallel", + INSTITUTION = "University of Dortmund, Fachbereich Informatik", + ADDRESS = "Dortmund, Germany", + YEAR = 1989, + AVAILABLE = "Also in: Proceedings SOR '89" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Bord90, + AUTHOR = "Andrei Z. Broder and Anna R. Karlin and Prabhakar + Raghavan and Eli Upfal", + TITLE = "On the Parallel Complexity of Evaluating Game-Trees", + INSTITUTION = "IBM Research Division", + NUMBER = "RR RJ 7729", + MONTH = Oct, + YEAR = 1990, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@INBOOK{Brat82, + AUTHOR = "I. Bratko and M. Gams", + CHAPTER = "Error Analysis of the Minimax Principle", + TITLE = "Advances in Computer Chess 3", + YEAR = 1982, + NOTE = "Editor: M. R. B. Clarke", + PAGES = "1--15", + PUBLISHER = "Pergamon Press", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Camp83, + AUTHOR = "Murray S. Campbell and T. A. Marsland", + TITLE = "A Comparison of Minimax Tree Search Algorithms", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 20, + PAGES = "347--367", + YEAR = 1983 +} + +@ARTICLE{Chak92, + AUTHOR = "P. P. Chakrabarti and S. Ghose", + TITLE = "A General Best First Search Algorithm in And/Or Graphs", + JOURNAL = jalgo, + VOLUME = 13, + NUMBER = 2, + PAGES = "177-187", + MONTH = Jun, + YEAR = 1992, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Cung91, + AUTHOR = "Van-Dat Cung and Catherine Roucairol", + TITLE = "Parallel Minimax Tree Searching", + INSTITUTION = "INRIA", + TYPE = "RR", + NUMBER = 1549, + YEAR = 1991, + MONTH = Nov, + NOTE = "In French, will appear in English" +} + +@ARTICLE{Darw83, + AUTHOR = "Nevin M. Darwish", + TITLE = "A Quantitative Analysis of the Alpha-Beta Pruning + Algorithm", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 21, + PAGES = "405--433", + YEAR = 1983 +} + +@TECHREPORT{Dide92, + AUTHOR = "Claude G. Diderich", + TITLE = "Evaluation des Performances de l'Algorithme {SSS*} avec + Phases de Synchronisation sur une Machine Parall\`ele \`a + M\'emoires Distribu\'ees", + ADDRESS = "Lausanne, Switzerland", + INSTITUTION = "Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Department of + Computer Science, Laboratory for Theoretical Computer + Science", + MONTH = Jun, + YEAR = 1992, + NOTE = "In french", + AVAILABLE = "Contact <[email protected]> for a copy" +} + +@MASTERSTHESIS{Feld87, + AUTHOR = "Rainer Feldmann and Peter Mysliwietz", + TITLE = "{Parallele Spielbaumsuche}", + NOTE = "Diplomarbeit, In german", + SCHOOL = "University of Paderborn", + ADDRESS = "Paderborn, Germany", + YEAR = 1987, + MONTH = Dec +} + +@ARTICLE{Feld89, + AUTHOR = "Rainer Feldmann and Burkhard Monien and Peter Mysliwietz and + Oliver Vornberger", + TITLE = "Distributed Game Tree Search", + JOURNAL = iccaj, + VOLUME = 12, + NUMBER = 2, + YEAR = 1989, + PAGES = "65--73", + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Feld90a, + AUTHOR = "Rainer Feldmann and Burkhard Monien and Peter Mysliwietz and + Oliver Vornberger", + TITLE = "Distributed Game Tree Search", + BOOKTITLE = "Parallel Algorithms for Machine Intelligence and Vision", + EDITOR = "Vipin Kumar, P. S. Gopalakrishnan, Laveen N. Kanal", + PUBLISHER = "Springer-Verlag", + PAGES = "66--101", + YEAR = 1990, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-BC" +} + +@INBOOK{Feld90b, + AUTHOR = "Rainer Feldmann and Peter Mysliwietz and Burkhard Monien", + TITLE = "Advances in Computer Chess 6", + CHAPTER = "1 --- A Fully Distributed Chess Program", + PAGES = "1--27", + PUBLISHER = "Ellis Horwood", + YEAR = 1990, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS", + NOTE = "Editor: D. Beal", +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Feld90c, + AUTHOR = "Rainer Feldmann, Peter Mysliwietz, Burkhard Monien", + TITLE = "{Spielbaumsuche auf einem Transputernetzwerk}", + BOOKTITLE = "Parallel - Algorithmen und -Rechnerstrukturen (PARS), + Workshop Sprachen und Systeme zur Parallelverarbeitung", + PUBLISHER = {Gesellschaft f\"ur Informatik}, + YEAR = 1990, + MONTH = Jan, + NOTE = "In german" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Feld91a, + AUTHOR = "Rainer Feldmann and Peter Mysliwietz and Burkhard Monien", + TITLE = "Distributed Game Tree Search on a Massively + Parallel System", + BOOKTITLE = "Data structures and efficient algorithms: Final + report on the {DFG} special joint initiative", + PUBLISHER = "Springer-Verlag", + EDITOR = "B. Monien, Th. Ottmann", + PAGES = "270--288", + VOLUME = "LNCS 594", + MONTH = Sep, + YEAR = 1991, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-BC" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Feld91b, + AUTHOR = "Rainer Feldmann and Peter Mysliwietz and Burkhard Monien", + TITLE = "Experiments with a Fully Distributed Chess Program", + BOOKTITLE = "Heuristic Programming in Artificial Intelligence 3", + EDITOR = "J. van den Herik, V. Allis", + YEAR = 1991, + PAGES = "72--87", + NOTE = "Also in: Tech.Report, University Paderborn, + Paderborn, Germany" + +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Felt88, + AUTHOR = "E. W. Felten and S. W. Otto", + TITLE = "Chess on a Hypercube", + BOOKTITLE = "The Third Conference on Hypercube Concurrent + Computers and Applications", + EDITOR = "Geoffrey Fox", + PAGES = "1329--1341", + VOLUME = "II-Applications", + YEAR = 1988, + ADDRESS = "Passadena, CA", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Ferg88, + AUTHOR = "C. Ferguson and Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "Distributed Tree Search and its application to + alpha-beta pruning", + BOOKTITLE = "Proceedings of the Seventh National Conference Artificial + Intelligence (AAAI-88)", + ADDRESS = "Minneapolis, MN", + YEAR = 1988, + MONTH = Aug, + PAGES = "128--132", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Fink80, + AUTHOR = "Raphael A. Finkel and John P. Fishburn", + TITLE = "Parallel Alpha-Beta Search on Arachne", + BOOKTITLE = "IEEE International Conference on Parallel Processing", + PAGES = "235--243", + YEAR = 1980, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Fink82, + AUTHOR = "Raphael A. Finkel and John P. Fishburn", + TITLE = "Parallelism in Alpha-Beta Search", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1982, + VOLUME = 19, + PAGES = "89--106" +} + +@ARTICLE{Fink83, + AUTHOR = "Raphael A. Finkel and John P. Fishburn", + TITLE = "Improved Speedup Bounds for Parallel Alpha-Beta Search", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + YEAR = 1983, + VOLUME = "PAMI-5", + NUMBER = 1, + PAGES = "89--92" +} + +@INBOOK{Fish84, + AUTHOR = "John P. Fishburn", + TITLE = "Analysis of Speedup in Distributed Algorithms", + CHAPTER = "4 -- {P}arallel Alpha-Beta Search", + PAGES = "11-54", + PUBLISHER = "UMI Research Press", + YEAR = 1984, + VOLUME = 14, + SERIES = "Computer Science: Distributed Database Systems", + NOTE = "Revision of thesis (PhD) -- University of Wisconsin, + Madison, 1981" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Full73, + AUTHOR = "S. H. Fuller and J. G. Gaschnig and J. J. Gillogly", + TITLE = "An Analysis of the Alpha-beta Pruning Algorithm", + ADDRESS = "Pittsburgh", + INSTITUTION = "Carnegie-Mellon University, Department of Computer Science", + MONTH = Jul, + YEAR = 1973, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Hewe92, + AUTHOR = "R. Hewett and K. Ganesan", + TITLE = "Consistent Linear Speedup in Parallel Alpha-Beta Search", + BOOKTITLE = "ICCI'92, Computing and Information", + PUBLISHER = "IEEE Computer Society Press", + PAGES = "237--240", + YEAR = 1992, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Hiro87, + AUTHOR = "Usui Hiromoto and Yamashita Masafumi and Imai Masaharu and + Ibaraki, Toshihide", + TITLE = "Parallel Searches of Game Trees", + JOURNAL = "Systems and Computers in Japan", + NUMBER = "8", + PAGES = "97--109", + VOLUME = 18, + YEAR = 1987, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Hora90, + AUTHOR = "Helmut Horacek", + TITLE = "Reasonning with Uncertainty in Computer Chess", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1990, + VOLUME = 43, + PAGES = "37--56" +} + +@INBOOK{Hsu89, + AUTHOR = "Feng-Hsiung Hsu and T. S. Anantharaman and + Murray S. Campbell and A. Nowatzyk", + TITLE = "Computers, Chess, and Cognition", + CHAPTER = "5 Deep Thought", + PAGES = "55--78", + YEAR = 1990, + PUBLISHER = "Springer Verlag", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Hsu90, + AUTHOR = "Feng-Hsiung Hsu", + TITLE = "Large Scale Parallelization of Alpha-Beta Search: An + Algorithmic and Architectural Study with Computer Chess", + SCHOOL = "Carnegie Mellon University", + MONTH = Feb, + YEAR = 1990, + NUMBER = "CMU-CS-90-108", + ADDRESS = "Pittsburgh, PA" +} + +@ARTICLE{Hunt88, + AUTHOR = "Matthew M. Huntbach and F. Warren Burton", + TITLE = "Alpha-Beta Search on Virtual Tree Machines", + JOURNAL = "Information Sciences", + PAGES = "3--17", + VOLUME = 44, + YEAR = 1988, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Hyat89, + AUTHOR = "R. M. Hyatt and B. W. Suter", + TITLE = "A Parallel Alpha/Beta Tree Searching Algorithm", + JOURNAL = "Parallel Computing", + PAGES = "299--308", + VOLUME = 10, + YEAR = 1989, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-BC" +} + +@ARTICLE{Ibar86, + AUTHOR = "Toshihide Ibaraki", + TITLE = "Generalization of Alpha-Beta and {SSS*} Search Procedures", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1986, + VOLUME = 29, + PAGES = "73--117" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Ibar87, + AUTHOR = "Toshihide Ibaraki", + TITLE = "Game Solving Procedure {H*} is Unsurpassed", + BOOKTITLE = "Discrete Algorithms and Complexity", + EDITOR = "D. S. Johnson and al.", + PAGES = "185--200", + YEAR = 1987, + PUBLISHER = "Academic Press, Inc.", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Ibar91a, + AUTHOR = "Toshihide Ibaraki", + TITLE = "Search Algorithms for Minimax Game Trees", + BOOKTITLE = "Comference: Twenty Years NP-Completeness", + ADDRESS = "Sicily, Italy", + MONTH = Jun, + YEAR = 1991, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Ibar91b, + AUTHOR = "Toshihide Ibaraki and Yoshiroh Katoh", + TITLE = "Searching Minimax Game Trees Under Memory Space Constraint", + JOURNAL = "Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence", + PAGES = "141--153", + VOLUME = 1, + YEAR = 1990, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Kain91, + AUTHOR = "Kaindl, Hermann and Shams, Reza and Horacek, Helmut", + TITLE = "Minimax Search Algorithms with and without Aspiration + Windows", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + YEAR = 1991, + VOLUME = "PAMI-13", + NUMBER = 12, + MONTH = Dec, + PAGES = "1225--1235" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Karp89, + AUTHOR = "Richard M. Karp and Yanjun Zhang", + TITLE = "On parallel evaluation of game trees", + BOOKTITLE = "First ACM Annual symposium on parallel algorithms and + architectures (SPAA'89)", + PUBLISHER = "ACM", + ADDRESS = "New York, NY", + PAGES = "409--420", + YEAR = 1989, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Kato88, + AUTHOR = "Y. Katoh and Toshihide Ibaraki", + TITLE = "Game Solving Procedure {SSS*} is Unsurpassed", + JOURNAL = "Systems and computers in Japan", + YEAR = 1988, + VOLUME = 19, + NUMBER = 7, + PAGES = "93-103", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@MASTERSTHESIS{Klei90, + AUTHOR = "Theo Klein Paste and Patrick {van der Laag}", + TITLE = "An Analysis of the {SSS*} Algorithm", + SCHOOL = "Erasmus University Rotterdam", + ADDRESS = "Rotterdam, NL", + YEAR = 1990, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Knut75, + AUTHOR = "Donald E. Knuth and Ronald W. Moore", + TITLE = "An Analysis of Alpha-Beta Pruning", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 6, + NUMBER = 4, + PAGES = "293--326", + YEAR = 1975 +} + +@ARTICLE{Korf85, + AUTHOR = "Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "Iterative Deepening: {An} Optimal Admissible Tree Search", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 27, + YEAR = 1985, + PAGES = "97--109", + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Korf89, + AUTHOR = "Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "Generalized Game Trees", + BOOKTITLE = "Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on + Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-89)", + ADDRESS = "Detroit, MI", + YEAR = 1989, + MONTH = Aug, + PAGES = "328--333", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Korf90, + AUTHOR = "Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "Depth-Limited Search for Real-Time Problem Solving", + JOURNAL = "The Journal of Real-Time Systems", + PAGES = "7--24", + YEAR = 1990, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-LITH" +} + +@ARTICLE{Korf91, + AUTHOR = "Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "Multi-Player alpha-beta pruning", + JOURNAL = artint, + MONTH = Feb, + NUMBER = 1, + YEAR = 1991, + VOLUME = 48, + PAGES = "99--111", + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Kraa90, + AUTHOR = "H.-J. Kraas", + TITLE = "Zur {Parallelisierung} des {SSS*-Algorithmus}", + SCHOOL = "University of Braunschweig", + ADDRESS = "Braunschweig, Germany", + YEAR = 1990, + NOTE = "In german, \Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Kuma83, + AUTHOR = "Vipin Kumar and Laveen N. Kanal", + TITLE = "A General Branch and Bound Formulation for Understanding + and Synthesizing And/Or Tree Search Procedures", + JOURNAL = artint, + PAGES = "179--198", + VOLUME = 21, + YEAR = 1983, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@ARTICLE{Kuma84, + AUTHOR = "Vipin Kumar and Laveen N. Kanal", + TITLE = "Parallel Branch-and-Bound Formulations for + {AND/OR} Tree Search", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + MONTH = Nov, + NUMBER = 6, + PAGES = "768--778", + VOLUME = "PAMI-6", + YEAR = 1984, + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-BC" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Kuma88, + AUTHOR = "Vipin Kumar and Laveen N. Kanal", + TITLE = "A General Branch and Bound Formulation for And/Or Graph + and Game Tree Search", + BOOKTITLE = "Search in Artificial Intelligence", + PUBLISHER = "Springer Verlag", + YEAR = 1988, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Leif85, + AUTHOR = "Daniel B. Leifker and Laveen N. Kanal", + TITLE = "A Hybrid {SSS*}/Alpha-Beta Algorithm for Parallel + Search of Game Trees", + BOOKTITLE = "Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on + Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-85)", + PAGES = "1044--1046", + YEAR = 1985, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Leve92, + AUTHOR = "Willem G. Levelt and M. Frans Kaashoek and Henri E. + Bal and Andrew S. Tanenbaum", + TITLE = "A Comparison of Two Paradigms for Distributed + Shared Memory", + JOURNAL = spex, + VOLUME = 22, + NUMBER = 11, + MONTH = Nov, + YEAR = 1992, + PAGES = "985--1010" +} + +@ARTICLE{Li90, + AUTHOR = "Liwu Li and T. A. Marsland", + TITLE = "Probability-Based Game Tree Pruning", + JOURNAL = jalgo, + YEAR = 1990, + MONTH = Mar, + NUMBER = 1, + VOLUME = 11, + PAGES = "27--43", + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Lind83, + AUTHOR = "Gary Lindstrom", + TITLE = "The Key Node Method: A Highly-Parallel Alpha-Beta + Algorithm", + ADDRESS = "Salt Lake City", + INSTITUTION = "University of Utah, Department of Computer Science", + MONTH = Mar, + NUMBER = "UUCS 83-101", + YEAR = 1983, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@MASTERSTHESIS{Low91, + AUTHOR = "Chin-Chau Low", + TITLE = "Parallel Game Tree Searching with Lower and Upper Bounds", + SCHOOL = "University of Illinois at Urbana Campaign", + ADDRESS = "IL", + YEAR = 1991, + ADVISOR = "L.V.Kale" +} + +@ARTICLE{Mars82, + AUTHOR = "T. A. Marsland and Murray S. Campbell", + TITLE = "Parallel Search of Strongly Ordered Game Trees", + JOURNAL = acmcs, + VOLUME = 14, + NUMBER = 4, + PAGES = "533--551", + MONTH = Dec, + YEAR = 1982 +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Mars83a, + AUTHOR = "T. A. Marsland", + TITLE = "Relative Efficiency of Alpha-Beta Implementations", + BOOKTITLE = "Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on + Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-83)", + YEAR = 1983, + PAGES = "763--766", + ADDRESS = "Karlsruhe, Germany", + MONTH = Aug, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Mars83b, + AUTHOR = "T. A. Marsland and Fred Popowich", + TITLE = "Multiprocessor Tree Searching System Design", + INSTITUTION = "University of Alberta, Department of Computer Science", + YEAR = 1983, + NUMBER = "TR 83-06", + ADDRESS = "Edmonton, Canada", + MONTH = Jul +} + +@ARTICLE{Mars85, + AUTHOR = "T. A. Marsland and Fred Popowich", + TITLE = "Parallel Game-Tree Search", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + YEAR = 1985, + VOLUME = "PAMI-7", + NUMBER = 4, + MONTH = Jul, + PAGES = "442--452" +} + +@ARTICLE{Mars87, + AUTHOR = "Marsland, T. A. and Reinefeld, Alexander and Schaeffer, + Jonathan", + TITLE = "Low Overhead Alternatives to {SSS*}", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 31, + PAGES = "185--199", + YEAR = 1987 +} + +@INBOOK{Mars88, + AUTHOR = "T.A. Marsland and M. Olafsson and Jonathan Schaeffer", + TITLE = "Multiprocessor Tree-Search Experiments", + BOOKTITLE = "Advances in Computer Chess IV", + NOTE = "D.F. Beal (Editor)", + PUBLISHER = "Pergamon Press", + PAGES = "37--51", + YEAR = 1986, + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{McAl88, + AUTHOR = "David Allen McAllester", + TITLE = "Conspiracy Numbers for Min-Max Searching", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 35, + PAGES = "287--310", + YEAR = 1988 +} + +@ARTICLE{Meul90, + AUTHOR = "M. van der Meulen", + TITLE = "Conspiracy Number Search", + JOURNAL = iccaj, + VOLUME = 13, + NUMBER = 1, + YEAR = 1990, + MONTH = Mar, + PAGES = "3--14", + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Mich83, + AUTHOR = "Gerard P. Michon", + TITLE = "Recursive Random Games: {A} Probabilistic Model for + Perfect Information Games", + SCHOOL = "University of California at Los Angeles, Computer + Science Department", + ADDRESS = "Los Angeles, CA", + NUMBER = "840029 (R-32)", + YEAR = 1983 +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Moni87, + AUTHOR = "Burkhard Monien and Oliver Vornberger", + TITLE = "Parallel Processing of Combinatorial Search Trees", + BOOKTITLE = " Proceedings International Workshop on Parallel + Algorithms and Architectures, Math. Research Nr. 38, + Akademie - Verlag Berlin", + PAGES = "60--69", + YEAR = 1987, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Nau82, + AUTHOR = "Danna S. Nau", + TITLE = "The Last Player Theorem", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 18, + PAGES = "53--65", + YEAR = 1982 +} + +@ARTICLE{Nau83, + AUTHOR = "Danna S. Nau", + TITLE = "Pathology on Game Trees Revisited, and an Alternative to + Minimaxing", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 21, + PAGES = "221--244", + YEAR = 1983 +} + +@ARTICLE{Newb77, + AUTHOR = "Monroe M. Newborn", + TITLE = "The Efficiency of the Alpha-Beta Search on Trees with + Branch-dependent Terminal Node Scores", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 8, + PAGES = "137--153", + YEAR = 1977 +} + +@ARTICLE{Newb88, + AUTHOR = "Monroe M. Newborn", + TITLE = "Unsynchronized Iteratively Deepening Parallel Alpha-Beta + Search", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + YEAR = 1988, + VOLUME = "PAMI-10", + NUMBER = 5, + PAGES = "687--694" +} + +@BOOK{Nils80, + AUTHOR = "Nils J. Nilsson", + TITLE = "Principles of Artificial Intelligence", + PUBLISHER = "Tioga Publishing Company", + ADDRESS = "Palo Alto, CA", + YEAR = 1980, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Pear80, + AUTHOR = "Judea Pearl", + TITLE = "Asymptotical Properties of Minimax Trees and Game + Searching Procedures", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 14, + NUMBER = 2, + PAGES = "113--138", + YEAR = 1980 +} + +@ARTICLE{Pear82, + AUTHOR = "Judea Pearl", + TITLE = "The Solution for the Branching Factor of the Alpha-Beta + Pruning Algorithm and its Optimality", + JOURNAL = cacm, + MONTH = Aug, + YEAR = 1982, + VOLUME = 25, + NUMBER = 8, + PAGES = "559--564" +} + +@ARTICLE{Pear83, + AUTHOR = "Judea Pearl", + TITLE = "On the Nature of Pathology in Game Searching", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 20, + YEAR = 1983, + PAGES = "427--453", + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-DMA" +} + +@BOOK{Pear84, + AUTHOR = "Judea Pearl", + TITLE = "Heuristics -- Intelligent Search Strategies for Computer + Problem Solving", + PUBLISHER = "Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.", + ADDRESS = "Reading, MA", + YEAR = 1984 +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Pijl91, + AUTHOR = "Wim Pijls", + TITLE = "Shortest Paths and Game Trees", + SCHOOL = "Erasmus University Rotterdam", + YEAR = 1991, + MONTH = Nov, + ADDRESS = "Rotterdam, NL" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Pijl92a, + AUTHOR = "Wim Pijls and Arie Bruin", + TITLE = "Another View of the {SSS*} Algorithm", + INSTITUTION = "Erasmus University Rotterdam", + YEAR = 1992, + MONTH = Jan, + ADDRESS = "Rotterdam, NL", + NOTE = "Also in: Algorithms, Proceedings of the International + Symposium, SIGAL'90, Tokyo, Japan, Aug. 1990" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Pijl92b, + AUTHOR = "Wim Pijls and Arie Bruin", + TITLE = "Searching Informed Game Trees", + INSTITUTION = "Erasmus University Rotterdam", + YEAR = 1992, + ADDRESS = "Rotterdam, NL", + NOTE = "Extended abstract. Also in: Proceedings CSN '92 + (Computer Science in the Netherlands), Mathematical + Center, Amsterdam, 1992" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Pijl92c, + AUTHOR = "Wim Pijls and Arie Bruin", + TITLE = "Searching Informed Game Trees", + INSTITUTION = "Erasmus University Rotterdam", + YEAR = 1992, + MONTH = Oct, + ADDRESS = "Rotterdam, NL", + NUMBER = "EUR-CS-92-02" +} + +@INBOOK{Powl90, + AUTHOR = "Powley, C. and C. Ferguson and Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "Parallel heuristic search: Two approaches", + BOOKTITLE = "Parallel Algorithms for Machine Intelligence and Vision", + YEAR = 1990, + PAGES = "42--65", + PUBLISHER = "Springer-Verlag", + AVAILABLE = "EPFL", + NOTE = "Edited by V. Kumar, P. S. Gopalakrishnan and L.N." +} + +@TECHREPORT{Popo83, + AUTHOR = "Fred Popowich and T. A. Marsland", + TITLE = "Parabelle: Experiences With a Parallel Chess Program", + YEAR = 1983, + MONTH = Aug, + INSTITUTION = "University of Alberta, Department of Computer Science", + ADDRESS = "Edmonton, Canada", + NUMBER = "TR 83-07", + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Powl91, + AUTHOR = "C. Powley and Richard E. Korf", + TITLE = "Single Agent Parallel Window Search", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + YEAR = 1991, + VOLUME = "PAMI-13", + NUMBER = 5, + MONTH = May, + PAGES = "466--477" +} + +@ARTICLE{Prak88, + AUTHOR = "Bettadapu Prakash and T. A. Marsland", + TITLE = "Accuracy and Savings in Depth-Limited Capture Search", + JOURNAL = "International Journal of Man-Machine Studies", + YEAR = 1988, + VOLUME = 29, + NUMBER = 6, + PAGES = "497--502", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Rein85, + AUTHOR = "Alexander Reinefeld and Jonathan Schaeffer and + T. A. Marsland", + TITLE = "Information Acquisition in Minimal Window Search", + BOOKTITLE = "Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on + Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-85)", + PAGES = "1040--1043", + VOLUME = 2, + YEAR = 1985, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@BOOK{Rein89, + AUTHOR = "Alexander Reinefeld", + TITLE = "Spielbaum Suchverfahren", + PUBLISHER = "Springer Verlag", + VOLUME = "Informatik-Fachberichte 200", + YEAR = 1989, + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Reza92, + AUTHOR = "Jaleh Rezaie and Raphael Finkel", + TITLE = "A Comparison of some Parallel Game-Tree Search Algorithms", + INSTITUTION = "University of Kentucky, Department of Computer Science", + ADDRESS = "Lexington, USA", + YEAR = 1992 +} + +@ARTICLE{Rive87, + AUTHOR = "Ronald L. Rivest", + TITLE = "Game Tree Searching by Min/Max Approximation", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1987, + VOLUME = 34, + NUMBER = 1, + PAGES = "77--96" +} + +@TECHREPORT{Roiz81, + AUTHOR = "Igor Roizen", + TITLE = "On the Average Number of Terminal Nodes Examined by + Alpha-Beta", + INSTITUTION = "University of California at Los Angeles, Cognitive + Systems Laboratory", + YEAR = 1981, + NUMBER = "UCLA-ENG-CSL-8108", + ADDRESS = "Los Angeles, CA", + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Roiz83, + AUTHOR = "Igor Roizen and Judea Pearl", + TITLE = "A Minimax Algorithm Better than Alpha-Beta? Yes and No", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 21, + PAGES = "199--230", + YEAR = 1983 +} + +@ARTICLE{Scha83, + AUTHOR = "Jonathan Schaeffer", + TITLE = "The History Heuristic", + JOURNAL = iccaj, + VOLUME = 6, + NUMBER = 3, + PAGES = "16--19", + YEAR = 1983, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Scha89a, + AUTHOR = "Jonathan Schaeffer", + TITLE = "Distributed Game-Tree Searching", + JOURNAL = jpdc, + VOLUME = 6, + PAGES = "90--114", + YEAR = 1989 +} + +@ARTICLE{Scha89b, + AUTHOR = "Jonathan Schaeffer", + TITLE = "The History Heuristic and Alpha-Beta Search Enhancements + in Practice", + JOURNAL = ieeetopami, + YEAR = 1989, + VOLUME = "PAMI-11", + NUMBER = 1, + MONTH = Nov, + PAGES = "1203--1212" +} + +@ARTICLE{Scha90, + AUTHOR = "Jonathan Schaeffer", + TITLE = "Conspiracy Numbers", + JOURNAL = artint, + YEAR = 1990, + VOLUME = 43, + PAGES = "67--84" +} + +@INBOOK{Schr86, + AUTHOR = {G. Schr\"ufer}, + CHAPTER = "Presence and Absence of Pathology on Game Trees", + TITLE = "Advances in Computer Chess 4", + YEAR = 1986, + NOTE = "Editor: D. F. Beal", + PAGES = "101--112", + PUBLISHER = "Pergamon Press", + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@PHDTHESIS{Schr88, + AUTHOR = {G. Schr\"ufer}, + TITLE = {{Minimax-Suchen Kosten, Qualit\"at und Algorithmen}}, + SCHOOL = "University of Braunschweig", + ADDRESS = "Braunschweig, West Germany", + YEAR = 1988, + NOTE = "In german, \Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Shan50, + AUTHOR = "Claude E. Shannon", + TITLE = "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", + JOURNAL = "Philosophical Magazine", + VOLUME = 41, + PAGES = "256--275", + YEAR = 1950, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Shen85, + AUTHOR = "Chien-Chung Shen and Wen-Hsiang Tsai", + TITLE = "A Graph Matching Approach to Optimal Task Assignment + in Distributed Computing Systems Using a Minimax Criterion", + JOURNAL = ieeetoc, + VOLUME = "C-34", + MONTH = Mar, + YEAR = 1985, + PAGES = "197--203", + AVAILABLE = "EPFL-LITH" +} + +@ARTICLE{Shin91, + AUTHOR = "Rajjan Shinghal and Sofia Shved", + TITLE = "Proposed Modifications to Parallel State Space + Search of Game Trees", + JOURNAL = ijprai, + NUMBER = 5, + VOLUME = "5", + PAGES = "809--833", + YEAR = 1991, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} + +@ARTICLE{Slag69, + AUTHOR = "James H. Slagle and John K. Dixon", + TITLE = "Experiments With SOme Programs That Search Game Trees", + JOURNAL = jacm, + VOLUME = 16, + NUMBER = 2, + YEAR = 1969, + MONTH = Apr, + PAGES = "189--207" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Stei90, + AUTHOR = "Igor Steinberg and Marvin Solomon", + TITLE = "Searching Game Trees in Parallel", + BOOKTITLE = "International Conference on Parallel Processing", + PAGES = "III-9 -- III-17", + YEAR = 1990, + NOTE = "\Star", + AVAILABLE = "NO" +} + +@ARTICLE{Stoc79, + AUTHOR = "G. C. Stockman", + TITLE = "A Minimax Algorithm Better than alpha-beta?", + JOURNAL = artint, + VOLUME = 12, + NUMBER = 2, + PAGES = "179--196", + YEAR = 1979 +} + +@ARTICLE{Tars83, + AUTHOR = "M. Tarsi", + TITLE = "Optimal Search on Some Game Trees", + JOURNAL = jacm, + YEAR = 1983, + VOLUME = 30, + PAGES = "389--396", + MONTH = Jul, + NOTE = "Also as Tech. Report UCLA-ENG-CSL-8108" +} + +@INPROCEEDINGS{Vorn87, + AUTHOR = "Oliver Vornberger and Burkhard Monien", + TITLE = "Parallel Alpha-Beta versus Parallel {SSS*}", + BOOKTITLE = "IFIP Conference on Distributed Processing", + ADDRESS = "Amsterdam, NL", + PUBLISHER = "North-Holland", + PAGES = "613--625", + MONTH = Oct, + YEAR = 1987, + AVAILABLE = "ETHICS" +} diff --git a/programs/minimax.dvi b/programs/minimax.dvi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b00755 --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/minimax.dvi diff --git a/programs/pentopt.htm b/programs/pentopt.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9cc5788 --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/pentopt.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6723 @@ +<html>
+<head>
+<title>How to optimize for the Pentium family of microprocessors</title>
+<style><!--
+ body{font-family:arial,sans-serif;color:black,background-color:"#F0FFE0"}
+ p{font-family:arial,sans-serif;}
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+ h2{font-size:"150%";font-weight:600;text-align:left;padding-top:1em}
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+--></style>
+</head>
+
+<body text="#000000" bgcolor="#F0FFE0" link="#0000E0" vlink="#E000E0" alink="#FF0000">
+<center><h1>How to optimize for the Pentium<br>
+family of microprocessors</h1>
+<p>
+<small>Copyright © 1996, 2000 by Agner Fog. Last modified 2000-07-03.</small>
+</center>
+<p> </p>
+
+<h2>Contents</h2>
+<ol>
+<li><a href="#1">Introduction</a>
+<li><a href="#2">Literature</a>
+<li><a href="#3">Calling assembly functions from high level language</a>
+<li><a href="#4">Debugging and verifying</a>
+<li><a href="#5">Memory model</a>
+<li><a href="#6">Alignment</a>
+<li><a href="#7">Cache</a>
+<li><a href="#8">First time versus repeated execution</a>
+<li><a href="#9">Address generation interlock (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+<li><a href="#10">Pairing integer instructions (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#10_1">Perfect pairing</a>
+ <li><a href="#10_2">Imperfect pairing</a>
+ </ol>
+<li><a href="#11">Splitting complex instructions into simpler ones (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+<li><a href="#12">Prefixes (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+<li><a href="#13">Overview of PPro, PII and PIII pipeline</a>
+<li><a href="#14">Instruction decoding (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+<li><a href="#15">Instruction fetch (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+<li><a href="#16">Register renaming (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#16_1">Eliminating dependencies</a>
+ <li><a href="#16_2">Register read stalls</a></ol>
+<li><a href="#17">Out of order execution (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+<li><a href="#18">Retirement (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+<li><a href="#19">Partial stalls (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#19_1">Partial register stalls</a>
+ <li><a href="#19_2">Partial flags stalls</a>
+ <li><a href="#19_3">Flags stalls after shifts and rotates</a>
+ <li><a href="#19_4">Partial memory stalls</a></ol>
+<li><a href="#20">Dependency chains (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+<li><a href="#21">Searching for bottlenecks (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+<li><a href="#22">Jumps and branches (all processors)</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#22_1">Branch prediction in PPlain</a>
+ <li><a href="#22_2">Branch prediction in PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII</a>
+ <li><a href="#22_3">Avoiding jumps (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#22_4">Avoiding conditional jumps by using flags (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#22_5">Replacing conditional jumps by conditional moves (PPro, PII and PIII)</a></ol>
+<li><a href="#23">Reducing code size (all processors)</a>
+<li><a href="#24">Scheduling floating point code (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+<li><a href="#25">Loop optimization (all processors)</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#25_1">Loops in PPlain and PMMX</a>
+ <li><a href="#25_2">Loops in PPro, PII and PIII</a></ol>
+<li><a href="#26">Problematic Instructions</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#26_1">XCHG (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_2">Rotates through carry (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_3">String instructions (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_4">Bit test (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_5">Integer multiplication (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_6">WAIT instruction (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_7">FCOM + FSTSW AX (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_8">FPREM (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_9">FRNDINT (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_10">FSCALE and exponential function (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_11">FPTAN (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_12">FSQRT (PIII)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_13">MOV [MEM], ACCUM (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_14">TEST instruction (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_15">Bit scan (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+ <li><a href="#26_16">FLDCW (PPro, PII and PIII)</a>
+ </ol>
+<li><a href="#27">Special topics</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#27_1">LEA instruction (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_2">Division (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_3">Freeing floating point registers (all processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_4">Transitions between floating point and MMX instructions PMMX, PII and PIII)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_5">Converting from floating point to integer (All processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_6">Using integer instructions to do floating point operations (All processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_7">Using floating point instructions to do integer operations (PPlain and PMMX)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_8">Moving blocks of data (All processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_9">Self-modifying code (All processors)</a>
+ <li><a href="#27_10">Detecting processor type (All processors)</a>
+ </ol>
+<li><a href="#28">List of instruction timings for PPlain and PMMX</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#28_1">Integer instructions</a>
+ <li><a href="#28_2">Floating point instructions</a>
+ <li><a href="#28_3">MMX instructions (PMMX)</a></ol>
+<li><a href="#29">List of instruction timings and micro-op breakdown for PPro, PII and PIII</a>
+ <ol><li><a href="#29_1">Integer instructions</a>
+ <li><a href="#29_2">Floating point instructions</a>
+ <li><a href="#29_3">MMX instructions (PII and PIII)</a>
+ <li><a href="#29_4">XMM instructions (PIII)</a>
+ </ol>
+<li><a href="#30">Testing speed</a>
+<li><a href="#31">Comparison of the different microprocessors</a>
+</ol>
+
+<p> </p>
+<h2><a name="1">1</a>. Introduction</h2>
+<p>This manual describes in detail how to write optimized assembly language
+code, with particular focus on the Pentium® family of microprocessors.
+<p>
+Most of the information herein is based on my own research. Many people have
+sent me useful information and corrections for this manual, and I keep
+updating it whenever I have new important information. This manual is
+therefore more accurate, detailed, comprehensive and exact than any other
+source of information, and it contains many details not found anywhere else.
+This information will enable you in many cases to calculate exactly how many
+clock cycles a piece of code will take. I do not claim, though, that all
+information in this manual is exact: Some timings etc. can be difficult or
+impossible to measure exactly, and I do not have access to the inside information
+on technical implementations that the writers of Intel manuals have.
+<p>
+The following versions of Pentium processors are discussed in this manual:<p>
+<table border=1>
+<tr><td class="a3">abbreviation</td><td class="a3">name</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PPlain</td><td>plain old Pentium (without MMX)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMMX</td><td>Pentium with MMX</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PPro</td><td>Pentium Pro</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PII</td><td>Pentium II (including Celeron and Xeon)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PIII</td><td>Pentium III (including variants)</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+The assembly language syntax used in this manual is MASM 5.10 syntax.
+There is no official standard for X86 assembly language, but this is the
+closest you can get to a de facto standard since most assemblers have a
+MASM 5.10 compatible mode. (I do not recommend using MASM version 5.10 though,
+because it has a serious bug in 32 bit mode. Use TASM or a later version of MASM).
+<p>
+Some of the remarks in this manual may seem like a criticism of Intel. This should not be
+taken to mean that other brands are better. The Pentium family of microprocessors
+compare well with competing brands, they are better documented, and have better
+testability features. For these reasons, no competing brand has been subjected to the same
+level of independent research by me or by anybody else.
+<p>
+Programming in assembly language is much more difficult than high level language. Making
+bugs is very easy, and finding them is very difficult. Now you have been warned! It is
+assumed that the reader is already experienced in assembly programming. If not, then
+please read some books on the subject and get some programming experience before you
+begin to do complicated optimizations.
+<p>
+The hardware design of the PPlain and PMMX chips has many features which are
+optimized specifically for some commonly used instructions or instruction combinations,
+rather than using general optimization methods. Consequently, the rules for optimizing
+software for this design are complicated and have many exceptions, but the possible gain
+in performance may be substantial. The PPro, PII and PIII processors have a very
+different design where the processor takes care of much of the optimization work by
+executing instructions out of order, but the more complicated design of these processors
+generate many potential bottlenecks, so there may be a lot to gain
+by optimizing manually for these processors. The Pentium 4 processor has yet
+another design, and the optimization guidelines for Pentium 4 are quite different
+from previous versions. This manual does not cover the Pentium 4 - the reader is
+referred to manuals from Intel.
+<p>
+Before you start to convert your code to assembly, make sure that your algorithm is optimal.
+Often you can improve a piece of code much more by improving the algorithm than by
+converting it to assembly code.
+<p>
+Next, you have to identify the critical parts of your program. Often more than 99% of the
+CPU time is spent in the innermost loop of a program. In this case you should optimize only
+this loop and leave everything else in high level language. Some assembly programmers
+waste a lot of energy optimizing the wrong parts of their programs, the only significant effect
+of their effort being that the programs become more difficult to debug and maintain!
+<p>
+If it is not obvious where the critical parts of your program are then you may use a profiler to
+find them. If it turns out that the bottleneck is disk access, then you may modify your
+program to make disk access sequential in order to improve disk caching, rather than
+turning to assembly programming. If the bottleneck is graphics output then you may look for
+a way of reducing the number of calls to graphic procedures.
+<p>
+Some high level language compilers offer relatively good optimization for specific
+processors, but further optimization by hand can usually make it much better.
+<p>
+Please don't send your programming questions to me. I am not gonna do your homework
+for you!
+<p>
+Good luck with your hunt for nanoseconds!
+<p>
+<h2><a name="2">2</a>. Literature</h2><p>
+A lot of useful literature and tutorials can be downloaded for free from Intel's www site or
+acquired in print or on CD-ROM. It is recommended that you study this literature in order to
+get acquainted with the microprocessor architecture. However, the documents from Intel are
+not always accurate - especially the tutorials have many errors (evidently, they haven't
+tested their own examples).
+<p>
+I will not give the URL's here because the file locations change very often. You can find the
+documents you need by using the search facilities at:
+<a href="http://developer.intel.com" target="external">developer.intel.com</a> or follow the
+links from <a href="http://www.agner.org/assem">www.agner.org/assem</a>
+<p>
+Some documents are in .PDF format. If you don't have software for viewing or printing .PDF
+files, then you may download the Acrobat file reader from <a href="http://www.adobe.com" target="external">www.adobe.com</a>
+<p>
+The use of MMX and XMM (SIMD) instructions for optimizing specific applications are described in several
+application notes. The instruction set is described in various manuals and tutorials.
+<p>
+VTUNE is a software tool from Intel for optimizing code. I have not tested it and can
+therefore not give any evalutation of it here.
+<p>
+A lot of other sources than Intel also have useful information. These sources are listed in
+the FAQ for the newsgroup comp.lang.asm.x86. For other internet ressources follow the
+links from <a href="http://www.agner.org/assem">www.agner.org/assem</a>
+<p>
+<h2><a name="3">3</a>. Calling assembly functions from high level language</h2><p>
+You can either use inline assembly or code a subroutine entirely in assembly language and
+link it into your project. If you choose the latter option, then it is recommended that you use
+a compiler which is capable of translating high level code directly to assembly. This assures
+that you get the function calling method right. Most C++ compilers can do this.
+<p>
+The methods for function calling and name mangling can be quite complicated. There are
+many different calling conventions, and the different brands of compilers are not compatible
+in this respect. If you are calling assembly language subroutines from C++, then the best
+method in terms of consistency and compatibility is to declare your functions <kbd>extern "C"</kbd>
+and <kbd>_cdecl</kbd>. The assembly code must then have the function name prefixed by an
+underscore (<kbd>_</kbd>) and be assembled with case sensitivity on externals (option -mx).
+<p>
+If you need to make overloaded functions, overloaded operators, member
+functions, and other C++ specialties then you have to code it in C++ first and
+make your compiler translate it to assembly in order to get the right linking
+information and calling method. These details are different for different brands
+of compilers. If you want an assembly function with any other calling method
+than <kbd>extern "C"</kbd> and <kbd>_cdecl</kbd> to be callable from code
+compiled with different compilers then you need to give it one public name
+for each compiler. For example an overloaded square function:
+<pre> ; int square (int x);
+ SQUARE_I PROC NEAR ; integer square function
+ @square$qi LABEL NEAR ; link name for Borland compiler
+ ?square@@YAHH@Z LABEL NEAR ; link name for Microsoft compiler
+ _square__Fi LABEL NEAR ; link name for Gnu compiler
+ PUBLIC @square$qi, ?square@@YAHH@Z, _square__Fi
+ MOV EAX, [ESP+4]
+ IMUL EAX
+ RET
+ SQUARE_I ENDP
+
+ ; double square (double x);
+ SQUARE_D PROC NEAR ; double precision float square function
+ @square$qd LABEL NEAR ; link name for Borland compiler
+ ?square@@YANN@Z LABEL NEAR ; link name for Microsoft compiler
+ _square__Fd LABEL NEAR ; link name for Gnu compiler
+ PUBLIC @square$qd, ?square@@YANN@Z, _square__Fd
+ FLD QWORD PTR [ESP+4]
+ FMUL ST(0), ST(0)
+ RET
+ SQUARE_D ENDP</pre>
+<p>
+The way of transferring parameters depends on the calling convention:</pre><p>
+<table border=1 cellpadding=1 cellspacing=1><tr>
+<td class="a3"> calling convention </td>
+<td class="a3"> parameter order on stack </td>
+<td class="a3"> parameters removed by </td></tr>
+<tr><td> _cdecl </td><td> first par. at low address
+</td><td> caller </td></tr><tr><td> _stdcall </td><td>
+ first par. at low address </td><td> subroutine </td></tr>
+<tr><td> _fastcall </td><td> compiler specific
+</td><td> subroutine </td></tr>
+<tr><td> _pascal </td><td> first par. at high address
+</td><td> subroutine </td>
+</tr></table>
+<p>
+<u>Register usage in 16 bit mode DOS or Windows, C or C++:</u><br>
+16-bit return value in <kbd>AX</kbd>, 32-bit return value in <kbd>DX:AX</kbd>,
+floating point return value in <kbd>ST(0)</kbd>. Registers <kbd>AX, BX, CX,
+DX, ES</kbd> and arithmetic flags may be changed by the procedure; all other
+registers must be saved and restored. A procedure can rely on <kbd>SI, DI, BP, DS</kbd>
+and <kbd>SS</kbd> being unchanged across a call to another procedure.
+<p>
+<u>Register usage in 32 bit Windows, C++ and other programming languages:</u><br>
+Integer return value in <kbd>EAX</kbd>, floating point return value in <kbd>ST(0)</kbd>.
+Registers <kbd>EAX, ECX, EDX</kbd> (not <kbd>EBX</kbd>) may be changed by the procedure; all other
+registers must be saved and restored. Segment registers cannot be changed, not even
+temporarily. <kbd>CS, DS, ES,</kbd> and <kbd>SS</kbd> all point to the flat segment group. <kbd>FS</kbd> is used by the
+operating system. <kbd>GS</kbd> is unused, but reserved. Flags may be changed by the procedure
+with the following restrictions: The direction flag is 0 by default. The direction flag may be
+set temporarily, but must be cleared before any call or return. The interrupt flag cannot be
+cleared. The floating point register stack is empty at the entry of a procedure and must be
+empty at return, except for <kbd>ST(0)</kbd> if it is used for return value. MMX registers may be
+changed by the procedure and if so cleared by <kbd>EMMS</kbd> before returning and before calling any
+other procedure that may use floating point registers. All XMM registers may be modified
+by procedures. Rules for passing parameters and return values in XMM registers
+are described in Intel's application note AP 589. A procedure can rely on
+<kbd>EBX, ESI, EDI, EBP</kbd> and all segment registers being unchanged across
+a call to another procedure.
+<p>
+
+<h2><a name="4">4</a>. Debugging and verifying</h2><p>
+Debugging assembly code can be quite hard and frustrating, as you probably already have
+discovered. I would recommend that you start with writing the piece of code you want to
+optimize as a subroutine in a high level language. Next, write a test program that will test
+your subroutine thoroughly. Make sure the test program goes into all branches and
+boundary cases.
+<p>
+When your high level language subroutine works with your test program then you are ready
+to translate the code to assembly language.
+<p>
+Now you can start to optimize. Each time you have made a modification you should run it
+on the test program to see if it works correctly.
+Number all your versions and save them so that you can go back and test them again in
+case you discover an error that the test program didn't catch (such as writing to a wrong
+address).
+<p>
+Test the speed of the most critical part of your program with the method described in
+chapter <a href="#30">30</a> or with a test program. If the code is significantly slower than expected, then the
+most probable causes are: cache misses (chapter <a href="#7">7</a>), misaligned
+operands (chapter <a href="#6">6</a>), first
+time penalty (chapter <a href="#8">8</a>), branch mispredictions
+(chapter <a href="#22">22</a>), instruction fetch problems
+(chapter <a href="#15">15</a>), register read stalls (<a href="#16">16</a>),
+ or long dependency chains (chapter <a href="#20">20</a>).
+<p>
+Highly optimized code tends to be very difficult to read and understand for others, and even
+for yourself when you get back to it after some time. In order to make it possible to maintain
+the code it is important that you organize it into small logical units (procedures or macros)
+with a well-defined interface and appropriate comments. The more complicated the code is
+to read, the more important is a good documentation.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="5">5</a>. Memory model</h2><p>
+The Pentiums are designed primarily for 32 bit code, and the performance is
+inferior on 16 bit code. Segmenting your code and data also degrades performance
+significantly, so you should generally prefer 32 bit flat mode, and an operating
+system which supports this mode. The code examples shown in this
+manual assume a 32 bit flat memory model, unless otherwise specified.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="6">6</a>. Alignment</h2><p>
+All data in RAM should be aligned to addresses divisible by 2, 4, 8, or 16 according to this
+scheme:
+<table border=1 cellpadding=1 cellspacing=1><tr><td>
+
+</td><td colspan=2 align=center class="a3">alignment</td></tr>
+<tr><td align=center class="a3"> operand size </td>
+<td align=center class="a3"> PPlain and PMMX </td>
+<td align=center class="a3"> PPro, PII and PIII </td></tr>
+<tr><td> 1 (byte) </td>
+<td align=center>1</td><td align=center>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 2 (word) </td><td align=center>2</td>
+<td align=center>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 4 (dword) </td>
+<td align=center align=center>4</td><td align=center>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 6 (fword) </td>
+<td align=center>4</td><td align=center>8</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 8 (qword) </td>
+<td align=center>8</td><td align=center>8</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 10 (tbyte) </td>
+<td align=center>8</td><td align=center>16</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 16 (oword) </td>
+<td align=center>n.a.</td><td align=center>16</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+On PPlain and PMMX, misaligned data will take at least 3 clock cycles extra to access if a 4
+byte boundary is crossed. The penalty is higher when a cache line boundary is crossed.
+<p>
+On PPro, PII and PIII, misaligned data will cost you 6-12 clocks extra when a
+cache line boundary is crossed. Misaligned operands smaller than 16 bytes that
+do not cross a 32 byte boundary give no penalty.
+<p>
+Aligning data by 8 or 16 on a dword size stack may be a problem. A common method is to set up
+an aligned frame pointer. A function with aligned local data may look like this:
+<pre>_FuncWithAlign PROC NEAR
+ PUSH EBP ; prolog code
+ MOV EBP, ESP
+ AND EBP, -8 ; align frame pointer by 8
+ FLD DWORD PTR [ESP+8] ; function parameter
+ SUB ESP, LocalSpace + 4 ; allocate local space
+ FSTP QWORD PTR [EBP-LocalSpace] ; store something in aligned space
+ ...
+ ADD ESP, LocalSpace + 4 ; epilog code. restore ESP
+ POP EBP ; (AGI stall on PPlain/PMMX)
+ RET
+_FuncWithAlign ENDP</pre>
+<p>
+While aligning data is always important, aligning code is not necessary on the PPlain and
+PMMX. Principles for aligning code on PPro, PII and PIII are explained in chapter <a href="#15">15</a>.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="7">7</a>. Cache</h2><p>
+The PPlain and PPro have 8 kb of on-chip cache (level one cache) for code, and 8 kb for
+data. The PMMX, PII and PIII have 16 kb for code and 16 kb for data. Data in the level 1 cache
+can be read or written to in just one clock cycle, whereas a cache miss may cost many
+clock cycles. It is therefore important that you understand how the cache works in order to
+use it most efficiently.
+<p>
+The data cache consists of 256 or 512 lines of 32 bytes each. Each time you read a data
+item which is not cached, the processor will read an entire cache line from memory. The
+cache lines are always aligned to a physical address divisible by 32. When you have read a
+byte at an address divisible by 32, then the next 31 bytes can be read or written to at almost
+no extra cost. You can take advantage of this by arranging data items which are used near
+each other together into aligned blocks of 32 bytes of memory. If, for example, you have a
+loop which accesses two arrays, then you may interleave the two arrays into one array of
+structures, so that data which are used together are also stored together.
+<p>
+If the size of an array or other data structure is a multiple of 32 bytes, then you should
+preferably align it by 32.
+<p>
+The cache is set-associative. This means that a cache line can not be assigned to an
+arbitrary memory address. Each cache line has a 7-bit set-value which must match bits 5
+through 11 of the physical RAM address (bit 0-4 define the 32 bytes within a cache line).
+The PPlain and PPro have two cache lines for each of the 128 set-values, so there are two
+possible cache lines to assign to any RAM address. The PMMX, PII and PIII have four.
+<p>
+The consequence of this is that the cache can hold no more than two or four different data
+blocks which have the same value in bits 5-11 of the address. You can determine if two
+addresses have the same set-value by the following method: Strip off the lower 5 bits of
+each address to get a value divisible by 32. If the difference between the two truncated
+addresses is a multiple of 4096 (=1000H), then the addresses have the same set-value.
+<p>
+Let me illustrate this by the following piece of code, where ESI holds an address divisible by
+32:
+
+<pre>AGAIN: MOV EAX, [ESI]
+ MOV EBX, [ESI + 13*4096 + 4]
+ MOV ECX, [ESI + 20*4096 + 28]
+ DEC EDX
+ JNZ AGAIN</pre>
+<p>
+The three addresses used here all have the same set-value because the differences
+between the truncated addresses are multipla of 4096. This loop will perform very poorly on
+the PPlain and PPro. At the time you read <kbd>ECX</kbd> there is no free cache
+line with the proper set-value so the processor takes the least recently used
+of the two possible cache lines, that is the one which was used for <kbd>EAX</kbd>, and
+fills it with the data from <kbd>[ESI+20*4096]</kbd> to
+<kbd>[ESI+20*4096+31]</kbd> and reads <kbd>ECX</kbd>.
+Next, when reading <kbd>EAX</kbd>, you find that the cache
+line that held the value for <kbd>EAX</kbd> has now been discarded, so you
+take the least recently used
+line, which is the one holding the <kbd>EBX</kbd> value, and so on..
+You have nothing but cache misses and the loop takes something like 60 clock
+cycles. If the third line is changed to:
+<pre> MOV ECX, [ESI + 20*4096 + 32]</pre>
+<p>
+then we have crossed a 32 byte boundary, so that we do not have the same set-value as in
+the first two lines, and there will be no problem assigning a cache line to each of the three
+addresses. The loop now takes only 3 clock cycles (except for the first time) - a very
+considerable improvement! As already mentioned, the PMMX, PII and PIII have 4-way caches
+so that you have four cache lines with the same set-value. (Some Intel documents
+erroneously say that the PII cache is 2-way).
+<p>
+It may be very difficult to determine if your data addresses have the same set-values,
+especially if they are scattered around in different segments. The best thing you can do to
+avoid problems of this kind is to keep all data used in the critical part or your program within
+one contiguous block not bigger than the cache, or two contiguous blocks no bigger than
+half that size (for example one block for static data and another block for data on the stack).
+This will make sure that your cache lines are used optimally.
+<p>
+If the critical part of your code accesses big data structures or random data addresses, then
+you may want to keep all frequently used variables (counters, pointers, control variables,
+etc.) within a single contiguous block of max 4 kbytes so that you have a complete set of
+cache lines free for accessing random data. Since you probably need stack space anyway
+for subroutine parameters and return addresses, the best thing is to copy all frequently
+used static data to dynamic variables on the stack, and copy them back again outside the
+critical loop if they have been changed.
+<p>
+Reading a data item which is not in the level one cache causes an entire cache line to be
+filled from the level two cache, which takes approximately 200 ns (that is 20 clocks on a
+100 MHz system or 40 clocks on a 200 MHz system), but the bytes you ask for first are
+available already after 50-100 ns. If the data item is not in the level two cache either, then
+you will get a delay of something like 200-300 ns. This delay will be somewhat longer if you
+cross a DRAM page boundary. (The size of a DRAM page is 1 kb for 4 and 8 MB 72 pin
+RAM modules, and 2 kb for 16 and 32 MB modules).
+<p>
+When reading big blocks of data from memory, the speed is limited by the time it takes to fill
+cache lines. You can sometimes improve speed by reading data in a non-sequential order:
+before you finish reading data from one cache line start reading the first item from the next
+cache line. This method can increase reading speed by 20 - 40% when reading from main
+memory or level 2 cache on PPlain and PMMX, and from level 2 cache on PPro, PII and PIII. A
+disadvantage of this method is of course that the program code becomes extremely clumsy
+and complicated. For further information on this trick see <a href="http://www.intelligentfirm.com" target="external">www.intelligentfirm.com</a>.
+<p>
+When you write to an address which is not in the level 1 cache, then the value will go right
+through to the level 2 cache or to the RAM (depending on how the level 2 cache is set up)
+on the PPlain and PMMX. This takes approximately 100 ns. If you write eight or more times
+to the same 32 byte block of memory without also reading from it, and the block is not in the
+level one cache, then it may be advantageous to make a dummy read from the block first to
+load it into a cache line. All subsequent writes to the same block will then go to the cache
+instead, which takes only one clock cycle. On PPlain and PMMX, there is sometimes a
+small penalty for writing repeatedly to the same address without reading in between.
+<p>
+On PPro, PII and PIII, a write miss will normally load a cache line, but it is possible to setup an
+area of memory to perform differently, for example video RAM (See Pentium Pro Family
+Developer's Manual, vol. 3: Operating System Writer's Guide").
+<p>
+Other ways of speeding up memory reads and writes are discussed in chapter
+<a href="#27_8">27.8</a> below.
+<p>
+The PPlain and PPro have two write buffers, PMMX, PII and PIII have four. On the PMMX, PII and
+PIII you may have up to four unfinished writes to uncached memory without delaying the
+subsequent instructions. Each write buffer can handle operands up to 64 bits wide.
+<p>
+Temporary data may conveniently be stored on the stack because the stack area is very
+likely to be in the cache. However, you should be aware of the alignment problems
+if your data elements are bigger than the stack word size.
+<p>
+If the life ranges of two data structures do not overlap, then they may share
+the same RAM area to increase cache efficiency. This is consistent with the
+common practice of allocating space for temporary variables on the stack.
+<p>
+Storing temporary data in registers is of course even more efficient. Since registers is a
+scarce ressource you may want to use <kbd>[ESP]</kbd> rather than <kbd>[EBP]</kbd> for addressing data on the
+stack, in order to free <kbd>EBP</kbd> for other purposes. Just don't forget that the value of <kbd>ESP</kbd>
+changes every time you do a <kbd>PUSH</kbd> or <kbd>POP</kbd>.
+(You cannot use <kbd>ESP</kbd> under 16-bit Windows
+because the timer interrupt will modify the high word of <kbd>ESP</kbd> at unpredictable places in your
+code.)
+<p>
+There is a separate cache for code, which is similar to the data cache. The size of the code
+cache is 8 kb on PPlain and PPro and 16 kb on the PMMX, PII and PIII. It is important that the
+critical part of your code (the innermost loops) fit in the code cache. Frequently used pieces
+of code or routines which are used together should preferable be stored near each other.
+Seldom used branches or procedures should be put away in the bottom of your code or
+somewhere else.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="8">8</a>. First time versus repeated execution</h2><p>
+A piece of code usually takes much more time the first time it is executed than when it is
+repeated. The reasons are the following:
+<ol>
+<li>Loading the code from RAM into the cache takes longer time than executing it.
+<li>Any data accessed by the code has to be loaded into the cache, which may take much
+more time than executing the instructions. When the code is repeated then the data are
+more likely to be in the cache.
+<li>Jump instructions will not be in the branch target buffer the first time they execute, and
+therefore are less likely to be predicted correctly. See chapter <a href="#22">22</a>.
+<li>In the PPlain, decoding the code is a bottleneck. If it takes one clock cycle to determine
+the length of an instruction, then it is not possible to decode two instructions per clock
+cycle, because the processor doesn't know where the second instruction begins. The
+PPlain solves this problem by remembering the length of any instruction which has
+remained in the cache since last time it was executed. As a consequence of this, a set
+of instructions will not pair in the PPlain the first time they are executed, unless the first
+of the two instructions is only one byte long. The PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII have no penalty
+on first time decoding.
+</ol><p>
+For these four reasons, a piece of code inside a loop will generally take much more time the
+first time it executes than the subsequent times.
+<p>
+If you have a big loop which doesn't fit into the code cache then you will get penalties all the
+time because it doesn't run from the cache. You should therefore try to reorganize the loop
+to make it fit into the cache.
+<p>
+If you have very many jumps, calls, and branches inside a loop, then you may get the
+penalty of branch target buffer misses repeatedly.
+<p>
+Likewise, if a loop repeatedly accesses a data structure too big for the data cache, then you
+will get the penalty of data cache misses all the time.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="9">9</a>. Address generation interlock (PPlain and PMMX)</h2><p>
+It takes one clock cycle to calculate the address needed by an instruction which accesses
+memory. Normally, this calculation is done at a separate stage in the pipeline while the
+preceding instruction or instruction pair is executing. But if the address depends on the
+result of an instruction executing in the preceding clock cycle, then you have to wait an
+extra clock cycle for the address to be calculated. This is called an AGI stall.
+Example:<br>
+<kbd>ADD EBX,4 / MOV EAX,[EBX] ; AGI stall</kbd><br>
+The stall in this example can be removed by putting some other instructions in between
+<kbd>ADD EBX,4</kbd> and <kbd>MOV EAX,[EBX]</kbd> or by rewriting the code to:
+<kbd>MOV EAX,[EBX+4] / ADD EBX,4</kbd>
+<p>
+You can also get an AGI stall with instructions which use <kbd>ESP</kbd> implicitly
+for addressing, such
+as <kbd>PUSH, POP, CALL,</kbd> and <kbd>RET</kbd>, if <kbd>ESP</kbd> has been
+changed in the preceding clock cycle by
+instructions such as <kbd>MOV, ADD,</kbd> or <kbd>SUB</kbd>.
+The PPlain and PMMX have special circuitry to
+predict the value of <kbd>ESP</kbd> after a stack operation so that you do not
+get an AGI delay after
+changing <kbd>ESP</kbd> with <kbd>PUSH, POP,</kbd> or <kbd>CALL</kbd>.
+You can get an AGI stall after <kbd>RET</kbd> only if it has an
+immediate operand to add to <kbd>ESP</kbd>.
+<p>
+Examples:
+<pre>ADD ESP,4 / POP ESI ; AGI stall
+POP EAX / POP ESI ; no stall, pair
+MOV ESP,EBP / RET ; AGI stall
+CALL L1 / L1: MOV EAX,[ESP+8] ; no stall
+RET / POP EAX ; no stall
+RET 8 / POP EAX ; AGI stall</pre>
+<p>
+The <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction is also subject to an AGI stall if it uses a
+base or index register which
+has been changed in the preceding clock cycle. Example:
+<pre>INC ESI / LEA EAX,[EBX+4*ESI] ; AGI stall</pre>
+<p>
+PPro, PII and PIII have no AGI stalls for memory reads and <kbd>LEA</kbd>, but they do have
+AGI stalls for memory writes. This is not very significant unless the subsequent
+code has to wait for the write to finish.<p>
+<h2><a name="10">10</a>. Pairing integer instructions (PPlain and PMMX)</h2>
+<h3><a name="10_1">10.1 Perfect pairing</a></h3><p>
+The PPlain and PMMX have two pipelines for executing instructions, called the U-pipe and
+the V-pipe. Under certain conditions it is possible to execute two instructions
+simultaneously, one in the U-pipe and one in the V-pipe. This can almost double the speed.
+It is therefore advantageous to reorder your instructions to make them pair.
+<p>
+The following instructions are pairable in either pipe:
+<ul><li><kbd>MOV</kbd> register, memory, or immediate into register or memory
+<li><kbd>PUSH</kbd> register or immediate, <kbd>POP</kbd> register
+<li><kbd>LEA, NOP</kbd>
+<li><kbd>INC, DEC, ADD, SUB, CMP, AND, OR, XOR,</kbd>
+<li>and some forms of <kbd>TEST</kbd> (see chapter <a href="#26_14">26.14</a>)
+</ul><p>
+The following instructions are pairable in the U-pipe only:
+<ul><li><kbd>ADC, SBB</kbd>
+<li><kbd>SHR, SAR, SHL, SAL</kbd> with immediate count
+<li><kbd>ROR, ROL, RCR, RCL</kbd> with an immediate count of 1
+</ul><p>
+The following instructions can execute in either pipe but are only pairable
+when in the V-pipe:
+<ul><li>near call
+<li>short and near jump
+<li>short and near conditional jump.
+</ul><p>
+All other integer instructions can execute in the U-pipe only, and are not pairable.
+<p>
+Two consecutive instructions will pair when the following conditions are met:
+<p>
+<u>1.</u> The first instruction is pairable in the U-pipe and the second
+instruction is pairable in the V-pipe.
+<p>
+<u>2.</u> The second instruction does not read or write a register which the first
+instruction writes to.<br>
+Examples:
+<pre> MOV EAX, EBX / MOV ECX, EAX ; read after write, do not pair
+ MOV EAX, 1 / MOV EAX, 2 ; write after write, do not pair
+ MOV EBX, EAX / MOV EAX, 2 ; write after read, pair OK
+ MOV EBX, EAX / MOV ECX, EAX ; read after read, pair OK
+ MOV EBX, EAX / INC EAX ; read and write after read, pair OK</pre>
+<p>
+<u>3.</u> In rule 2 partial registers are treated as full registers. Example:
+<pre> MOV AL, BL / MOV AH, 0</pre><p>
+writes to different parts of the same register, do not pair
+<p>
+<u>4.</u> Two instructions which both write to parts of the flags register can pair despite rule 2 and
+3. Example:
+<pre> SHR EAX, 4 / INC EBX ; pair OK</pre>
+<p>
+<u>5.</u> An instruction which writes to the flags can pair with a conditional jump despite rule 2.
+Example:
+<pre> CMP EAX, 2 / JA LabelBigger ; pair OK</pre>
+<p>
+<u>6.</u> The following instruction combinations can pair despite the fact that they both modify the
+stack pointer:
+<pre> PUSH + PUSH, PUSH + CALL, POP + POP</pre>
+<p>
+<u><a name="10-7">7.</a></u> There are restrictions on the pairing of instructions with prefix.
+There are several types of prefixes:
+<ul>
+<li>instructions addressing a non-default segment have a segment prefix.
+<li>instructions using 16 bit data in 32 bit mode, or 32 bit data in 16 bit mode have an
+operand size prefix.
+<li>instructions using 32 bit base or index registers in 16 bit mode have an address size
+prefix.
+<li>repeated string instructions have a repeat prefix.
+<li>locked instructions have a <kbd>LOCK</kbd> prefix.
+<li>many instructions which were not implemented on the 8086 processor have a two byte
+opcode where the first byte is <kbd>0FH</kbd>. The <kbd>0FH</kbd> byte behaves
+as a prefix on the PPlain, but
+not on the other versions. The most common instructions with <kbd>0FH</kbd>
+prefix are: <kbd>MOVZX,
+MOVSX, PUSH FS, POP FS, PUSH GS, POP GS, LFS, LGS, LSS, SETcc, BT,
+BTC, BTR, BTS, BSF, BSR, SHLD, SHRD,</kbd> and <kbd>IMUL</kbd> with two operands and no
+immediate operand.
+</ul>
+<p>
+On the PPlain, a prefixed instruction can only execute in the U-pipe, except for conditional
+near jumps.
+<p>
+On the PMMX, instructions with operand size, address size, or <kbd>0FH</kbd>
+prefix can execute in
+either pipe, whereas instructions with segment, repeat, or lock prefix can
+only execute in the U-pipe.
+<p>
+<u>8.</u> An instruction which has both a displacement and immediate data is not pairable on the
+PPlain and only pairable in the U-pipe on the PMMX:
+<pre> MOV DWORD PTR DS:[1000], 0 ; not pairable or only in U-pipe
+ CMP BYTE PTR [EBX+8], 1 ; not pairable or only in U-pipe
+ CMP BYTE PTR [EBX], 1 ; pairable
+ CMP BYTE PTR [EBX+8], AL ; pairable</pre><p>
+ (Another problem with instructions which have both a displacement and
+ immediate data on the PMMX is that such instructions may be longer
+ than 7 bytes, which means that only one instruction can be decoded
+ per clock cycle, as explained in chapter <a href="#12">12</a>.)
+<p>
+<u>9.</u> Both instructions must be preloaded and decoded. This is explained in
+chapter <a href="#8">8</a>.
+<p>
+<u>10.</u> There are special pairing rules for MMX instructions on the PMMX:
+<ul>
+<li>MMX shift, pack or unpack instructions can execute in either pipe but cannot pair with
+other MMX shift, pack or unpack instructions.
+<li>MMX multiply instructions can execute in either pipe but cannot pair with other MMX
+multiply instructions. They take 3 clock cycles and the last 2 clock cycles can overlap
+with subsequent instructions in the same way as floating point instructions can (see
+chapter <a href="#24">24</a>).
+<li>an MMX instruction which accesses memory or integer registers can execute only in the
+U-pipe and cannot pair with a non-MMX instruction.
+</ul>
+<p>
+
+<h3><a name="10_2">10.2 Imperfect pairing</a></h3><p>
+There are situations where the two instructions in a pair will not execute simultaneously, or
+only partially overlap in time. They should still be considered a pair, though, because the
+first instruction executes in the U-pipe, and the second in the V-pipe. No subsequent
+instruction can start to execute before both instructions in the imperfect pair have finished.
+<p>
+Imperfect pairing will happen in the following cases:
+<p>
+<u>1.</u> If the second instructions suffers an AGI stall (see chapter <a href="#9">9</a>).
+<p>
+<u>2.</u> Two instructions cannot access the same DWORD of memory simultaneously.
+The following examples assume that <kbd>ESI</kbd> is divisible by 4:<br>
+<kbd> MOV AL, [ESI] / MOV BL, [ESI+1]</kbd><br>
+The two operands are within the same DWORD, so they cannot execute
+simultaneously. The pair takes 2 clock cycles.<br>
+<kbd> MOV AL, [ESI+3] / MOV BL, [ESI+4]</kbd><br>
+Here the two operands are on each side of a DWORD boundary, so they
+pair perfectly, and take only one clock cycle.
+<p>
+<u>3.</u> Rule 2 is extended to the case where bit 2-4 is the same in the two addresses (cache
+bank conflict). For DWORD addresses this means that the difference between the two
+addresses should not be divisible by 32. Examples:
+<pre> MOV [ESI], EAX / MOV [ESI+32000], EBX ; imperfect pairing
+ MOV [ESI], EAX / MOV [ESI+32004], EBX ; perfect pairing</pre>
+<p>
+Pairable integer instructions which do not access memory take one clock cycle to
+execute, except for mispredicted jumps. <kbd>MOV</kbd> instructions to or from
+memory also take
+only one clock cycle if the data area is in the cache and properly aligned. There is no
+speed penalty for using complex addressing modes such as scaled index registers.
+<p>
+A pairable integer instruction which reads from memory, does some calculation, and
+stores the result in a register or flags, takes 2 clock cycles. (read/modify instructions).
+<p>
+A pairable integer instruction which reads from memory, does some calculation, and
+writes the result back to the memory, takes 3 clock cycles. (read/modify/write
+instructions).
+<p>
+<u>4.</u> If a read/modify/write instruction is paired with a read/modify or read/modify/write
+instruction, then they will pair imperfectly.
+
+<p>
+The number of clock cycles used is given in the following table:
+<table border=1 cellpadding=1 cellspacing=1><tr>
+<td align="center" class="a3">
+First instruction</td>
+<td colspan=3 align="center" class="a3">Second instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td> </td><td align=center> MOV or register only
+</td><td align=center> read/modify </td>
+<td align=center> read/modify/write </td></tr>
+<tr><td align=center> MOV or register only </td>
+<td align=center> 1 </td>
+<td align=center> 2 </td>
+<td align=center> 3 </td></tr>
+<tr><td align=center> read/modify </td>
+<td align=center> 2 </td>
+<td align=center> 2 </td>
+<td align=center> 3 </td></tr>
+<tr><td align=center> read/modify/write </td>
+<td align=center> 3 </td>
+<td align=center> 4 </td>
+<td align=center> 5 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Example:<br><kbd> ADD [mem1], EAX / ADD EBX, [mem2] ; 4 clock cycles<br> ADD EBX, [mem2] / ADD [mem1], EAX ; 3 clock cycles</kbd>
+<p>
+<u>5.</u> When two paired instructions both take extra time due to cache misses, misalignment,
+or jump misprediction, then the pair will take more time than each instruction, but less
+than the sum of the two.
+<p>
+<u>6.</u> A pairable floating point instruction followed by <kbd>FXCH</kbd>
+ will make imperfect pairing if the
+next instruction is not a floating point instruction.
+<p>
+<p>In order to avoid imperfect pairing you have to know which instructions go into the U-pipe,
+and which to the V-pipe. You can find out this by looking backwards in your code and
+search for instructions which are unpairable, pairable only in one of the pipes, or cannot pair
+due to one of the rules above.
+<p>
+Imperfect pairing can often be avoided by reordering your instructions.
+Example:
+ <br>
+<pre>L1: MOV EAX,[ESI]
+ MOV EBX,[ESI]
+ INC ECX</pre><p>
+
+Here the two <kbd>MOV</kbd> instructions form an imperfect pair because they both access the same
+memory location, and the sequence takes 3 clock cycles. You can improve the code by
+reordering the instructions so that <kbd>INC ECX</kbd> pairs with one of the
+<kbd>MOV</kbd> instructions.
+
+<pre>L2: MOV EAX,OFFSET A
+ XOR EBX,EBX
+ INC EBX
+ MOV ECX,[EAX]
+ JMP L1</pre><p>
+
+The pair <kbd>INC EBX / MOV ECX,[EAX]</kbd> is imperfect because the latter
+instruction has an
+AGI stall. The sequence takes 4 clocks. If you insert a <kbd>NOP</kbd> or any other instruction so that
+<kbd>MOV ECX,[EAX]</kbd> pairs with <kbd>JMP L1</kbd> instead, then the sequence takes only 3 clocks.
+<p>
+<a name="imperfectpush">
+The next example is in 16 bit mode, assuming that <kbd>SP</kbd> is divisible by 4:</a>
+
+<pre>L3: PUSH AX
+ PUSH BX
+ PUSH CX
+ PUSH DX
+ CALL FUNC</pre><p>
+
+Here the <kbd>PUSH</kbd> instructions form two imperfect pairs, because both operands in each pair go
+into the same dword of memory. <kbd>PUSH BX</kbd> could possibly pair perfectly
+with <kbd>PUSH CX</kbd>
+(because they go on each side of a DWORD boundary) but it doesn't because it has already
+been paired with <kbd>PUSH AX</kbd>. The sequence therefore takes 5 clocks. If you insert a <kbd>NOP</kbd> or
+any other instruction so that <kbd>PUSH BX</kbd> pairs with <kbd>PUSH CX</kbd>,
+and <kbd>PUSH DX</kbd> with <kbd>CALL FUNC</kbd>,
+then the sequence will take only 3 clocks. Another way to solve the problem is to make sure
+that <kbd>SP</kbd> is not divisible by 4. Knowing whether <kbd>SP</kbd> is
+divisible by 4 or not in 16 bit mode can
+be difficult, so the best way to avoid this problem is to use 32 bit mode.
+
+<p>
+
+<h2><a name="11">11</a>. Splitting complex instructions into simpler ones (PPlain and PMMX)</h2><p>
+You may split up read/modify and read/modify/write instructions to improve pairing.
+Example:<br>
+<kbd> ADD [mem1],EAX / ADD [mem2],EBX ; 5 clock cycles</kbd><br>
+This code may be split up into a sequence which takes only 3 clock cycles:
+<pre> MOV ECX,[mem1] / MOV EDX,[mem2] / ADD ECX,EAX / ADD EDX,EBX
+ MOV [mem1],ECX / MOV [mem2],EDX</pre><p>
+
+Likewise you may split up non-pairable instructions into pairable instructions:
+<pre> PUSH [mem1]
+ PUSH [mem2] ; non-pairable</pre><p>
+Split up into:
+<pre> MOV EAX,[mem1]
+ MOV EBX,[mem2]
+ PUSH EAX
+ PUSH EBX ; everything pairs</pre><p>
+
+Other examples of non-pairable instructions which may be split up into simpler pairable
+instructions:<br>
+<kbd>CDQ</kbd> split into: <kbd>MOV EDX,EAX / SAR EDX,31</kbd><br>
+<kbd>NOT EAX</kbd> change to <kbd>XOR EAX,-1</kbd><br>
+<kbd>NEG EAX</kbd> split into <kbd>XOR EAX,-1 / INC EAX</kbd><br>
+<kbd>MOVZX EAX,BYTE PTR [mem]</kbd> split into <kbd> XOR EAX,EAX / MOV AL,BYTE PTR [mem]</kbd><br>
+<kbd>JECXZ</kbd> split into <kbd>TEST ECX,ECX / JZ</kbd><br>
+<kbd>LOOP</kbd> split into <kbd>DEC ECX / JNZ</kbd><br>
+<kbd>XLAT</kbd> change to <kbd>MOV AL,[EBX+EAX]</kbd>
+<p>
+If splitting instructions doesn't improve speed, then you may keep the complex or
+nonpairable instructions in order to reduce code size.
+<p>
+Splitting instructions is not needed on the PPro, PII and PIII, except when the split instructions
+generate fewer uops.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="12">12</a>. Prefixes (PPlain and PMMX)</h2><p>
+An instruction with one or more prefixes may not be able to execute in the V-pipe (se
+<a href="#10-7">chapter 10, sect. 7</a>), and it may take more than one clock cycle to decode.
+<p>
+On the PPlain, the decoding delay is one clock cycle for each prefix except for the <kbd>0FH</kbd>
+prefix of conditional near jumps.
+<p>
+The PMMX has no decoding delay for <kbd>0FH</kbd> prefix.
+Segment and repeat prefixes take one
+clock extra to decode. Address and operand size prefixes take two clocks extra to decode.
+The PMMX can decode two instructions per clock cycle if the first instruction has a
+segment or repeat prefix or no prefix, and the second instruction has no prefix. Instructions
+with address or operand size prefixes can only decode alone on the PMMX. Instructions with
+more than one prefix take one clock extra for each prefix.
+<p>
+Address size prefixes can be avoided by using 32 bit mode. Segment prefixes can be
+avoided in 32 bit mode by using a flat memory model. Operand size prefixes can be avoided
+in 32 bit mode by using only 8 bit and 32 bit integers.
+<p>
+Where prefixes are unavoidable, the decoding delay may be masked if a preceding
+instruction takes more than one clock cycle to execute. The rule for the PPlain is that any
+instruction which takes N clock cycles to execute (not to decode) can 'overshadow' the
+decoding delay of N-1 prefixes in the next two (sometimes three) instructions or instruction
+pairs. In other words, each extra clock cycle that an instruction takes to execute can be
+used to decode one prefix in a later instruction. This shadowing effect even extends across
+a predicted branch. Any instruction which takes more than one clock cycle to execute, and
+any instruction which is delayed because of an AGI stall, cache miss, misalignment, or any
+other reason except decoding delay and branch misprediction, has a shadowing effect.
+<p>
+The PMMX has a similar shadowing effect, but the mechanism is different. Decoded
+instructions are stored in a transparent first-in-first-out (FIFO) buffer, which can hold up to
+four instructions. As long as there are instructions in the FIFO buffer you get no delay.
+When the buffer is empty then instructions are executed as soon as they are decoded. The
+buffer is filled when instructions are decoded faster than they are executed, i.e. when you
+have unpaired or multi-cycle instructions. The FIFO buffer is emptied when instructions
+execute faster than they are decoded, i.e. when you have decoding delays due to prefixes.
+The FIFO buffer is empty after a mispredicted branch. The FIFO buffer can receive two
+instructions per clock cycle provided that the second instruction is without prefixes and
+none of the instructions are longer than 7 bytes. The two execution pipelines (U and V) can
+each receive one instruction per clock cycle from the FIFO buffer.
+<p>
+Examples: <br>
+<kbd> CLD / REP MOVSD</kbd><br>
+The <kbd>CLD</kbd> instruction takes two clock cycles and can therefore overshadow the decoding
+delay of the <kbd>REP</kbd> prefix. The code would take one clock cycle more if the <kbd>CLD</kbd> instruction was
+placed far from the <kbd>REP MOVSD.</kbd>
+<br>
+<kbd> CMP DWORD PTR [EBX],0 / MOV EAX,0 / SETNZ AL</kbd><br>
+The <kbd>CMP</kbd> instruction takes two clock cycles here because it is a read/modify instruction. The
+<kbd>0FH</kbd> prefix of the <kbd>SETNZ</kbd> instruction is decoded during the second clock cycle of the <kbd>CMP </kbd>
+instruction, so that the decoding delay is hidden on the PPlain (The PMMX has no
+decoding delay for the <kbd>0FH</kbd>).
+<p>
+Prefix penalties in PPro, PII and PIII are described in chapter <a href="#14">14</a>.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="13">13</a>. Overview of PPro, PII and PIII pipeline</h2><p>
+The architecture of the PPro, PII and PIII microprocessors is well explained and illustrated in
+various manuals and tutorials from Intel. It is recommended that you study this material in
+order to get an understanding of how these microprocessors work. I will describe the
+structure briefly here with particular focus on those elements that are important for
+optimizing code.
+<p>
+Instruction codes are fetched from the code cache in aligned 16-byte chunks into a double
+buffer that can hold two 16-byte chunks. The code is passed on from the double buffer to
+the decoders in blocks which I will call ifetch blocks (instruction fetch blocks). The ifetch
+blocks are usually 16 bytes long, but not aligned. The purpose of the double-buffer is to
+make it possible to decode an instruction that crosses a 16-byte boundary (i.e. an address
+divisible by 16).
+<p>
+The ifetch block goes to the instruction length decoder, which determines where each
+instruction begins and ends, and next to the instruction decoders. There are three decoders
+so that you can decode up to three instructions in each clock cycle. A group of up to three
+instructions that are decoded in the same clock cycle is called a decode group.
+<p>
+The decoders translate instructions into micro-operations, abbreviated uops. Simple
+instructions generate only one uop, while more complex instructions may generate several
+uops. For example, the instruction <kbd>ADD EAX,[MEM]</kbd> is decoded into two uops: one for
+reading the source operand from memory, and one for doing the addition. The purpose of
+splitting instructions into uops is to make the handling later in the system more effective.
+<p>
+The three decoders are called D0, D1, and D2. D0 can handle all instructions, while D1
+and D2 can handle only simple instructions that generate one uop.
+<p>
+The uops from the decoders go via a short queue to the register allocation table (RAT). The
+execution of uops work on temporary registers which are later written to the permanent
+registers <kbd>EAX, EBX</kbd>, etc. The purpose of the RAT is to tell the uops which temporary
+registers to use, and to allow register renaming (see later).
+<p>
+After the RAT, the uops to go the reorder buffer (ROB). The purpose of the ROB is to
+enable out-of-order execution. A uop stays in the reservation station until the operands it
+needs are available. If an operand for one uop is delayed because a previous uop that
+generates the operand is not finished yet, then the ROB may find another uop later in the
+queue that can be executed in the meantime in order to save time.
+<p>
+The uops that are ready for execution are sent to the execution units, which are clustered
+around five ports: Port 0 and 1 can handle arithmetic operations, jumps, etc. Port 2 takes
+care of all reads from memory, port 3 calculates addresses for memory writes, and port 4
+does memory writes.
+<p>
+When an instruction has been executed then it is marked in the ROB as ready to retire. It then goes to
+the retirement station. Here the contents of the temporary registers used by the uops are
+written to the permanent registers. While uops can be executed out of order, they must be
+retired in order.
+<p>
+In the following chapters, I will describe in detail how to optimize the throughput of each step
+in the pipeline.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="14">14</a>. Instruction decoding (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2><p>
+I am describing instruction decoding before instruction fetching here because you need to
+know how the decoders work in order to understand the possible delays in instruction
+fetching.
+<p>
+The decoders can handle three instructions per clock cycle, but only when certain
+conditions are met. Decoder D0 can handle any instruction that generates up to 4 uops in a
+single clock cycle. Decoders D1 and D2 can handle only instructions that generate 1 uop
+and these instructions can be no more than 8 bytes long.
+<p>
+To summarize the rules for decoding two or three instructions in the same clock cycle:
+<ul>
+<li>The first instruction (D0) generates no more than 4 uops,
+<li>The second and third instructions generate no more than 1 uop each,
+<li>The second and third instructions are no more than 8 bytes long each,
+<li>The instructions must be contained within the same 16 bytes ifetch block (see next
+chapter).
+</ul><p>
+There is no limit to the length of the instruction in D0 (despite Intel manuals saying
+something else), as long as the three instructions fit into one 16 bytes ifetch block.
+<p>
+An instruction that generates more than 4 uops takes two or more clock cycles to decode,
+and no other instructions can decode in parallel.
+<p>
+It follows from the rules above that the decoders can produce a maximum of 6 uops per
+clock cycle if the first instruction in each decode group generates 4 uops and the next two
+generate 1 uop each. The minimum production is 2 uops per clock cycle, which you get
+when all instructions generate 2 uops each, so that D1 and D2 are never used.
+<p>
+For maximum throughput, it is recommended that you order your instructions according to
+the 4-1-1 pattern: instructions that generate 2 to 4 uops can be interspearsed with two
+simple 1-uop instructions for free, in the sense that they do not add to the decoding time.
+Example:
+<pre>MOV EBX, [MEM1] ; 1 uop (D0)
+INC EBX ; 1 uop (D1)
+ADD EAX, [MEM2] ; 2 uops (D0)
+ADD [MEM3], EAX ; 4 uops (D0)</pre><p>
+This takes 3 clock cycles to decode. You can save one clock cycle by reordering the
+instructions into two decode groups:
+<pre>ADD EAX, [MEM2] ; 2 uops (D0)
+MOV EBX, [MEM1] ; 1 uop (D1)
+INC EBX ; 1 uop (D2)
+ADD [MEM3], EAX ; 4 uops (D0)</pre><p>
+
+The decoders now generate 8 uops in two clock cycles, which is probably satisfactory.
+Later stages in the pipeline can handle only 3 uops per clock cycle so with a decoding rate
+higher than this you can assume that decoding is not a bottleneck. However, complications
+in the fetch mechanism can delay decoding as described in the next chapter, so to be safe
+you may want to aim at a decoding rate higher than 3 uops per clock cycle.
+<p>
+You can see how many uops each instruction generates in the tables in chapter <a href="#29">29</a>.
+<p>
+Instruction prefixes can also incur penalties in the decoders. Instructions can have several
+kinds of prefixes:
+ <ul>
+<li>An operand size prefix is needed when you have a 16-bit operand in a 32-bit
+environment or vice versa. (Except for instructions that can only have one operand size,
+such as <kbd>FNSTSW AX</kbd>). An operand size prefix gives a penalty of a few clocks if the
+instruction has an immediate operand of 16 or 32 bits because the length of the operand
+is changed by the prefix. Examples:
+<pre> ADD BX, 9 ; no penalty because immediate operand is 8 bits
+ MOV WORD PTR [MEM16], 9 ; penalty because operand is 16 bits </pre>
+The last instruction should be changed to:
+<pre> MOV EAX, 9
+ MOV WORD PTR [MEM16], AX ; no penalty because no immediate</pre>
+<li>An address size prefix is used when you use 32-bit addressing in 16 bit mode or vice
+versa. This is seldom needed and should generally be avoided. The address size prefix
+gives a penalty whenever you have an explicit memory operand (even when there is no
+displacement) because the interpretation of the r/m bits in the instruction code is
+changed by the prefix. Instructions with only implicit memory operands, such as string
+instructions, have no penalty with address size prefix.
+<li>Segment prefixes are used when you address data in a non-default data segment.
+Segment prefixes give no penalty on the PPro, PII and PIII.
+<li>Repeat prefixes and lock prefixes give no penalty in the decoders.
+<li>There is always a penalty if you have more than one prefix. This penalty is usually one
+clock per prefix.
+</ul>
+<p>
+<h2><a name="15">15</a>. Instruction fetch (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2><p>
+The code is fetched in aligned 16-bytes chunks from the code cache and placed in the
+double buffer, which is called so because it can contain two such chunks. The code is then
+taken from the double buffer and fed to the decoders in blocks which are usually 16 bytes
+long, but not necessarily aligned by 16. I will call these blocks ifetch blocks (instruction fetch
+blocks). If an ifetch block crosses a 16 byte boundary in the code then it needs to take from
+both chunks in the double buffer. So the purpose of the double buffer is to allow instruction
+fetching across 16 byte boundaries.
+<p>
+The double buffer can fetch one 16-bytes chunk per clock cycle and can generate one
+ifetch block per clock cycle. The ifetch blocks are usually 16 bytes long, but can be shorter
+if there is a predicted jump in the block. (See chapter <a href="#22">22</a> about jump prediction).
+<p>
+Unfortunately, the double buffer is not big enough for handling fetches around jumps
+without delay. If the ifetch block that contains the jump instruction crosses a 16-byte
+boundary then the double buffer needs to keep two consecutive aligned 16-bytes chunks of
+code in order to generate it. If the first instruction after the jump crosses a 16-byte
+boundary, then the double buffer needs to load two new 16-bytes chunks of code before a
+valid ifetch block can be generated. This means that, in the worst case, the decoding of the
+first instruction after a jump can be delayed for two clock cycles. You get one penalty for a
+16-byte boundary in the ifetch block containing the jump instruction, and one penalty for a
+16-byte boundary in the first instruction after the jump. You can get bonus if you have more
+than one decode group in the ifetch block that contains the jump because this gives the
+double buffer extra time to fetch one or two 16-byte chunks of code in advance for the
+instructions after the jump. The bonuses can compensate for the penalties according to the
+table below. If the double buffer has fetched only one 16-byte chunk of code after the jump,
+then the first ifetch block after the jump will be identical to this chunk, that is, aligned to a
+16-byte boundary. In other words, the first ifetch block after the jump will not begin at the
+first instruction, but at the nearest preceding address divisible by 16. If the double buffer
+has had time to load two 16-byte chunks, then the new ifetch block can cross a 16-byte
+boundary and begin at the first instruction after the jump. These rules are summarized in
+the following <a name="ifetchtable">table:</a><p>
+
+<table border=1 cellpadding=1 cellspacing=1><tr><td class="a3">
+Number of<br>decode groups<br>in ifetch-block<br>containing jump</td>
+<td class="a3">16-byte<br>boundary in this<br>ifetch-block</td>
+<td class="a3">16-byte<br>boundary in first<br>instruction after<br>jump</td>
+<td class="a3"><br><br>decoder delay</td>
+<td class="a3">alignment of first<br>ifetch after jump</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">by 16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">by 16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">2</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">by 16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3 or more</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3 or more</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3 or more</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3 or more</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">1</td>
+<td align="center">0</td>
+<td align="center">to instruction</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>Jumps delay the fetching so that a loop always takes at least two clock cycles more per
+iteration than the number of 16 byte boundaries in the loop.
+<p>
+A further problem with the instruction fetch mechanism is that a new ifetch block is not
+generated until the previous one is exhausted. Each ifetch block can contain several
+decode groups. If a 16 bytes long ifetch block ends with an unfinished instruction, then the
+next ifetch block will begin at the beginning of that instruction. The first instruction in an
+ifetch block always goes to decoder D0, and the next two instructions go to D1 and D2, if
+possible. The consequence of this is that D1 and D2 are used less than optimally. If the
+code is structured according to the recommended 4-1-1 pattern, and an instruction intended
+to go into D1 or D2 happens to be the first instruction in an ifetch block, then that instruction
+has to go into D0 with the result that one clock cycle is wasted.
+This is probably a hardware design flaw. At least it is suboptimal design.
+The consequence of this problem is that the time it takes to decode a piece of
+code can vary considerably depending on where the first ifetch block begins.
+<p>
+If decoding speed is critical and you want to avoid these problems then you have to know
+where each ifetch block begins. This is quite a tedious job. First you need to make your
+code segment paragraph-aligned in order to know where the 16-byte boundaries are. Then
+you have to look at the output listing from your assembler to see how long each instruction
+is. (It is recommended that you study how instructions are coded so that you can predict the
+lengths of the instructions.) If you know where one ifetch block begins then you can find
+where the next ifetch block begins in the following way: Make the block 16 bytes long. If it
+ends at an instruction boundary then the next block will begin there. If it ends with an
+unfinished instruction then the next block will begin at the beginning of this instruction.
+(Only the lengths of the instructions counts here, it doesn't matter how many uops they
+generate or what they do). This way you can work your way all through the code and mark
+where each ifetch block begins. The only problem is knowing where to start. If you know
+where one ifetch block is then you can find all the subsequent ones, but you have to know
+where the first one begins. Here are some guidelines:
+ <ul>
+<li>The first ifetch block after a jump, call, or return can begin either at the first instruction or
+at the nearest preceding 16-bytes boundary, according to the table above. If you align
+the first instruction to begin at a 16-byte boundary then you can be sure that the first
+ifetch block begins here. You may want to align important subroutine entries and loop
+entries by 16 for this purpose.
+
+<li>If the combined length of two consecutive instructions is more than 16 bytes then you
+can be certain that the second one doesn't fit into the same ifetch block as the first one,
+and consequently you will always have an ifetch block beginning at the second
+instruction. You can use this as a starting point for finding where subsequent ifetch
+blocks begin.
+
+<li>The first ifetch block after a branch misprediction begins at a 16-byte boundary. As
+explained in chapter <a href="#22_2">22.2</a>, a loop that repeats more than 5 times will always have a
+misprediction when it exits. The first ifetch block after such a loop will therefore begin at
+the nearest preceding 16-byte boundary.
+
+<li>Other serializing events also cause the next ifetch block to start at a 16-byte boundary.
+Such events include interrupts, exceptions, self-modifying code, and serializing
+instructions such as <kbd>CPUID, IN,</kbd> and <kbd>OUT</kbd>.
+</ul>
+<p>
+
+I am sure you want an example now:
+
+<pre>
+ address instruction length uops expected decoder
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1000h MOV ECX, 1000 5 1 D0
+ 1005h LL: MOV [ESI], EAX 2 2 D0
+ 1007h MOV [MEM], 0 10 2 D0
+ 1011h LEA EBX, [EAX+200] 6 1 D1
+ 1017h MOV BYTE PTR [ESI], 0 3 2 D0
+ 101Ah BSR EDX, EAX 3 2 D0
+ 101Dh MOV BYTE PTR [ESI+1],0 4 2 D0
+ 1021h DEC ECX 1 1 D1
+ 1022h JNZ LL 2 1 D2</pre>
+<p>
+Let's assume that the first ifetch block begins at address 1000h and ends at 1010h. This is
+before the end of the <kbd>MOV [MEM],0</kbd> instruction so the next ifetch block will begin at 1007h
+and end at 1017h. This is at an instruction boundary so the third ifetch block will begin at
+1017h and cover the rest of the loop. The number of clock cycles it takes to decode this is
+the number of D0 instructions, which is 5 per iteration of the LL loop. The last ifetch block
+contained three decode blocks covering the last five instructions, and it has one 16-byte
+boundary (1020h). Looking at the table above we find that the first ifetch block after the
+jump will begin at the first instruction after the jump, that is the <kbd>LL</kbd>
+label at 1005h, and end at
+1015h. This is before the end of the <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction, so the next ifetch block will go from
+1011h to 1021h, and the last one from 1021h covering the rest. Now the <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction
+and the <kbd>DEC</kbd> instruction both fall at the beginning of an ifetch block which forces them to go
+into D0. We now have 7 instructions in D0 and the loop takes 7 clocks to decode in the
+second iteration. The last ifetch block contains only one decode group
+ (<kbd>DEC ECX / JNZ LL</kbd>) and has no 16-byte boundary. According to the table, the next ifetch block after the
+jump will begin at a 16-byte boundary, which is 1000h. This will give us the same situation
+as in the first iteration, and you will see that the loop takes alternatingly 5 and 7 clock cycles
+to decode. Since there are no other bottlenecks, the complete loop will take 6000 clocks to
+run 1000 iterations. If the starting address had been different so that you had a 16-byte
+boundary in the first or the last instruction of the loop then it would take 8000 clocks. If you
+reorder the loop so that no D1 or D2 instructions fall at the beginning of an ifetch block then
+you can make it take only 5000 clocks.
+<p>
+The example above was deliberately constructed so that fetch and decoding is the only
+bottleneck. The easiest way to avoid this problem is to structure your code to generate
+much more than 3 uops per clock cycle so that decoding will not be a bottleneck despite the
+penalties described here. In small loops this may not be possible and then you have to find
+out how to optimize the instruction fetch and decoding.
+<p>
+One thing you can do is to change the starting address of your procedure in order to avoid
+16-byte boundaries where you don't want them. Remember to make your code segment
+paragraph aligned so that you know where the boundaries are.
+<p>
+If you insert an <kbd>ALIGN 16</kbd> directive before the loop entry then the assembler will put in
+<kbd>NOP</kbd>'s and other filler instructions up to the nearest 16 byte boundary. Most assemblers use
+the instruction <kbd>XCHG EBX,EBX</kbd> as a 2-byte filler (the so called 2-byte <kbd>NOP</kbd>). Whoever got
+this idea, it's a bad one because this instruction takes more time than two <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s on most
+processors! If the loop executes many times then whatever is outside the loop is
+unimportant in terms of speed and you don't have to care about the suboptimal filler
+instructions. But if the time taken by the fillers is important then you may
+select the filler instructions manually.
+You may as well use filler instructions that do something useful, such as refreshing
+a register in order to avoid register read stalls (see chapter <a href="#16_2">16.2</a>)
+For example, if you are using register <kbd>EBP</kbd> for addressing but seldom
+write to it, then you may use <kbd>MOV EBP,EBP</kbd> or <kbd>ADD EBP, 0</kbd> as
+filler in order to reduce the possibilities of register read stalls.
+If you have nothing useful to do, you may use <kbd>FXCH ST(0)</kbd> as a good filler
+because it doesn't put any load on the execution ports, provided that <kbd>ST(0)</kbd>
+contains a valid floating point value.
+<p>
+Another possible remedy is to reorder your instructions in order to get the ifetch boundaries
+where they don't hurt. This can be quite a difficult puzzle and it is not always possible to find
+a satisfactory solution.
+<p>
+Yet another possibility is to manipulate instruction lengths. Sometimes you can substitute
+one instruction with another one with a different length. Many instructions can be coded in
+different versions with different lengths. The assembler always chooses the shortest
+possible version of an instruction, but it is often possible to hard-code a longer version. For
+example, <kbd>DEC ECX</kbd> is one byte long, <kbd>SUB ECX,1</kbd> is 3 bytes, and you can code a 6 bytes
+version with a long immediate operand using this trick:
+<pre> SUB ECX, 9999
+ ORG $-4
+ DD 1</pre><p>
+Instructions with a memory operand can be made one byte longer with a SIB byte, but the
+easiest way of making an instruction one byte longer is to add a <kbd>DS:</kbd>
+segment prefix (<kbd>DB 3Eh</kbd>).
+The microprocessors generally accept redundant and meaningless prefixes (except
+<kbd>LOCK</kbd>) as long as the instruction length does not exceed 15 bytes. Even instructions without
+a memory operand can have a segment prefix. So if you want the <kbd>DEC ECX</kbd> instruction to be
+2 bytes long, write:
+<pre> DB 3Eh
+ DEC ECX</pre><p>
+Remember that you get a penalty in the decoder if an instruction has more than one prefix.
+It is possible that instructions with meaningless prefixes - especially repeat and
+lock prefixes - will be used in future processors for new instructions when there are no
+more vacant instruction codes, but I would consider it safe to use a segment prefix
+with any instruction.
+<p>
+With these methods it will usually be possible to put the ifetch boundaries where you want
+them, although it can be a tedious puzzle.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="16">16</a>. Register renaming (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2>
+<h3><a name="16_1">16.1 Eliminating dependencies</a></h3><p>
+Register renaming is an advanced technique used by these microprocessors to remove
+dependencies between different parts of the code. Example:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [MEM1]
+ IMUL EAX, 6
+ MOV [MEM2], EAX
+ MOV EAX, [MEM3]
+ INC EAX
+ MOV [MEM4], EAX</pre><p>
+Here the last three instructions are independent of the first three in the sense that they don't
+need any result from the first three instructions. To optimize this on earlier processors you
+would have to use a different register instead of <kbd>EAX</kbd> in the last three instructions and
+reorder the instructions so that the last three instructions could execute in parallel with the
+first three instructions. The PPro, PII and PIII processors do this for you automatically. They
+assign a new temporary register for <kbd>EAX</kbd> every time you write to it. Thereby the
+<kbd>MOV EAX,[MEM3]</kbd> instruction becomes independent of the preceding instructions.
+With out-of-order execution it is likely to finish the move to <kbd>[MEM4]</kbd> before the slow
+<kbd>IMUL</kbd> instruction is finished.
+<p>
+Register renaming goes fully automatically. A new temporary register is assigned as an
+alias for the permanent register every time an instruction writes to this register. An
+instruction that both reads and writes a register also causes renaming. For example the
+<kbd>INC EAX</kbd> instruction above uses one temporary register for input and another temporary
+register for output. This does not remove any dependency, of course, but it has some
+significance for subsequent register reads as I will explain later.
+<p>
+All general purpose registers, stack pointer, flags, floating point registers,
+MMX registers, XMM registers and segment registers can be renamed.
+Control words, and the floating point status word cannot be renamed and this is the
+reason why the use of these registers is slow. There are 40 universal temporary
+registers so it is unlikely that you will run out of temporary registers.
+<p>
+A common way of setting a register to zero is <kbd>XOR EAX,EAX</kbd> or
+<kbd>SUB EAX,EAX</kbd>. These
+instructions are not recognized as independent of the previous value of the register. If you
+want to remove the dependency on slow preceding instructions then use
+<kbd> MOV EAX,0.</kbd>
+<p>
+Register renaming is controlled by the register alias table (RAT) and the reorder buffer
+(ROB). The uops from the decoders go to the RAT via a queue, and then to the ROB and
+the reservation station. The RAT can handle only 3 uops per clock cycle. This means that
+the overall throughput of the microprocessor can never exceed 3 uops per clock cycle on
+average.
+<p>
+There is no practical limit to the number of renamings. The RAT can rename three registers
+per clock cycle, and it can even rename the same register three times in one clock cycle.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="16_2">16.2</a> Register read stalls</h3><p>
+But there is another limitation which may be quite serious, and that is that you
+can only read two different permanent register names per clock cycle. This
+limitation applies to all registers used by an instruction except those registers
+that the instruction writes to only.
+Example:
+<pre> MOV [EDI + ESI], EAX
+ MOV EBX, [ESP + EBP]</pre><p>
+The first instruction generates two uops: one that reads <kbd>EAX</kbd>
+and one that reads <kbd>EDI</kbd> and
+<kbd>ESI</kbd>. The second instruction generates one uop that reads
+<kbd>ESP</kbd> and <kbd>EBP</kbd>. <kbd>EBX</kbd> does not
+count as a read because it is only written to by the instruction. Let's assume that these
+three uops go through the RAT together. I will use the word triplet for a group of three
+consecutive uops that go through the RAT together. Since the ROB can handle only two
+permanent register reads per clock cycle and we need five register reads, our triplet will be
+delayed for two extra clock cycles before it comes to the reservation station. With 3 or 4
+register reads in the triplet it would be delayed by one clock cycle.
+<p>
+The same register can be read more than once in the same triplet without adding to the
+count. If the instructions above are changed to:
+<pre> MOV [EDI + ESI], EDI
+ MOV EBX, [EDI + EDI]</pre><p>
+then you will need only two register reads (<kbd>EDI</kbd> and <kbd>ESI</kbd>) and the triplet will not be delayed.
+<p>
+A register that is going to be written to by a pending uop is stored in the ROB so that it can
+be read for free until it is written back, which takes at least 3 clock cycles,
+and usually more. Write-back is the end of the execution stage where the value
+becomes available. In other words, you can read any number of registers in the
+RAT without stall if their values are not yet available from the execution units.
+The reason for this is that when a value becomes available it is immediately
+written directly to any subsequent ROB entries that need it. But if the value
+has already been written back to a temporary or permanent register when a
+subsequent uop that needs it goes into the RAT, then the value has to be read
+from the register file, which has only two read ports. There are three pipeline
+stages from the RAT to the execution unit so you can be certain that a register
+written to in one uop-triplet can be read for free in at least the next three
+triplets. If the writeback is delayed by reordering, slow instructions,
+dependency chains, cache misses, or by any other kind of stall, then the
+register can be read for free further down the instruction stream.
+<p>
+Example:
+<pre> MOV EAX, EBX
+ SUB ECX, EAX
+ INC EBX
+ MOV EDX, [EAX]
+ ADD ESI, EBX
+ ADD EDI, ECX</pre><p>
+These 6 instructions generate 1 uop each. Let's assume that the first 3 uops go through the
+RAT together. These 3 uops read register <kbd>EBX</kbd>, <kbd>ECX</kbd>, and <kbd>EAX</kbd>. But since we are writing to
+<kbd>EAX</kbd> before reading it, the read is free and we get no stall. The next three uops read <kbd>EAX</kbd>,
+<kbd>ESI</kbd>, <kbd>EBX</kbd>, <kbd>EDI</kbd>, and <kbd>ECX</kbd>. Since both <kbd>EAX</kbd>, <kbd>EBX</kbd> and <kbd>ECX</kbd> have been modified in the
+preceding triplet and not yet written back then they can be read for free, so that only <kbd>ESI</kbd>
+and <kbd>EDI</kbd> count, and we get no stall in the second triplet either. If the
+<kbd>SUB ECX,EAX</kbd>
+instruction in the first triplet is changed to <kbd>CMP ECX,EAX</kbd> then <kbd>ECX</kbd> is not written to and we
+will get a stall in the second triplet for reading <kbd>ESI</kbd>, <kbd>EDI</kbd> and <kbd>ECX</kbd>. Similarly, if the <kbd>INC</kbd>
+<kbd>EBX</kbd> instruction in the first triplet is changed to <kbd>NOP</kbd> or something else then we will get a stall
+in the second triplet for reading <kbd>ESI</kbd>, <kbd>EBX</kbd> and <kbd>EDI</kbd>.
+<p>
+No uop can read more than two registers. Therefore, all instructions that need
+to read more than two registers are split up into two or more uops.
+<p>
+To count the number of register reads, you have to include all registers which are read by
+the instruction. This includes integer registers, the flags register, the stack pointer,
+floating point registers and MMX registers.
+An XMM register counts as two registers,
+except when only part of it is used, as e.g. in <kbd>ADDSS</kbd> and <kbd>MOVHLPS</kbd>.
+Segment registers and the instruction pointer do not count.
+For example, in <kbd>SETZ AL</kbd> you count the flags
+register but not <kbd>AL</kbd>. <kbd>ADD EBX,ECX</kbd> counts both <kbd>EBX</kbd> and <kbd>ECX</kbd>, but not the flags because
+they are written to only. <kbd>PUSH EAX</kbd> reads <kbd>EAX</kbd> and the
+stack pointer and then writes to the stack pointer.
+<p>
+The <kbd>FXCH</kbd> instruction is a special case. It works by renaming, but doesn't read any values
+so that it doesn't count in the rules for register read stalls. An <kbd>FXCH</kbd> instruction behaves
+like 1 uop that neither reads nor writes any registers with regard to the rules for register read
+stalls.
+<p>
+Don't confuse uop triplets with decode groups. A decode group can generate from 1 to 6
+uops, and even if the decode group has three instructions and generates three uops there
+is no guarantee that the three uops will go into the RAT together.
+<p>
+The queue between the decoders and the RAT is so short (10 uops) that you cannot
+assume that register read stalls do not stall the decoders or that fluctuations
+in decoder throughput do not stall the RAT.
+<p>
+It is very difficult to predict which uops go through the RAT together unless the queue is
+empty, and for optimized code the queue should be empty only after mispredicted branches.
+Several uops generated by the same instruction do not necessarily go through the RAT
+together; the uops are simply taken consecutively from the queue, three at at time. The
+sequence is not broken by a predicted jump: uops before and after the jump can go through
+the RAT together. Only a mispredicted jump will discard the queue and start over again so
+that the next three uops are sure to go into the RAT together.
+<p>
+If three consecutive uops read more than two different registers then you would of course
+prefer that they do not go through the RAT together. The probability that they do is one
+third. The penalty of reading three or four written-back registers in one triplet of uops is one
+clock cycle. You can think of the one clock delay as equivalent to the load of three more
+uops through the RAT. With the probability of 1/3 of the three uops going into the RAT
+together, the average penalty will be the equivalent of 3/3 = 1 uop. To calculate the average
+time it will take for a piece of code to go through the RAT, add the number of potential
+register read stalls to the number of uops and divide by three. You can see that It doesn't
+pay to remove the stall by putting in an extra instruction unless you know for sure which
+uops go into the RAT together or you can prevent more than one potential register read stall
+by one extra instruction.
+<p>
+In situations where you aim at a throughput of 3 uops per clock, the limit of two permanent
+register reads per clock cycle may be a problematic bottleneck to handle. Possible ways to
+remove register read stalls are:
+<ul><li>keep uops that read the same register close together so that they are likely to go into the
+same triplet.
+<li>keep uops that read different registers spaced so that they cannot go into the same
+triplet.
+<li>place uops that read a register no more than 3 - 4 triplets after an instruction that writes
+to or modifies this register to make sure it hasn't been written back before it is read (it
+doesn't matter if you have a jump between as long as it is predicted). If you have reason
+to expect the register write to be delayed for whatever reason then you can safely read
+the register somewhat further down the instruction stream.
+<li>use absolute addresses instead of pointers in order to reduce the number of register
+reads.
+<li>you may rename a register in a triplet where it doesn't cause a stall in order to prevent a
+read stall for this register in one or more later triplets. Example:
+<kbd>MOV ESP,ESP / ... / MOV EAX,[ESP+8]</kbd>.
+This method costs an extra uop and therefore doesn't pay unless the expected average
+number of read stalls prevented is more than 1/3.
+</ul>
+<p>
+For instructions that generate more than one uop you may want to know the order of the
+uops generated by the instruction in order to make a precise analysis of the possibility of
+register read stalls. I have therefore listed the most common cases below.
+<p>
+<u>Writes to memory</u><br>
+A memory write generates two uops. The first one (to port 4) is a store operation, reading
+the register to store. The second uop (port 3) calculates the memory address, reading any
+pointer registers. Examples:<br>
+<kbd>MOV [EDI], EAX</kbd><br>
+First uop reads <kbd>EAX</kbd>, second uop reads <kbd>EDI</kbd>.<br>
+<kbd>FSTP QWORD PTR [EBX+8*ECX]</kbd><br>
+First uop reads <kbd>ST(0)</kbd>, second uop reads <kbd>EBX</kbd> and <kbd>ECX.</kbd>
+<p>
+<u>Read and modify</u><br>
+An instruction that reads a memory operand and modifies a register by some arithmetic or
+logical operation generates two uops. The first one (port 2) is a memory load instruction
+reading any pointer registers, the second uop is an arithmetic instruction (port 0 or 1)
+reading and writing to the destination register and possibly writing to the flags.
+Example:<br>
+<kbd>ADD EAX, [ESI+20]</kbd><br>
+First uop reads <kbd>ESI,</kbd> second uop reads <kbd>EAX</kbd> and writes <kbd>EAX</kbd> and flags.
+<p>
+<u>Read/modify/write</u><br>
+A read/modify/write instruction generates four uops. The first uop (port 2) reads any pointer
+registers, the second uop (port 0 or 1) reads and writes to any source register and possibly
+writes to the flags, the third uop (port 4) reads only the temporary result which doesn't count
+here, the fourth uop (port 3) reads any pointer registers again. Since the first and the fourth
+uop cannot go into the RAT together you cannot take advantage of the fact that they read
+the same pointer registers. Example:<br>
+<kbd>OR [ESI+EDI], EAX</kbd><br>
+The first uop reads <kbd>ESI</kbd> and <kbd>EDI</kbd>, the second uop reads <kbd>EAX</kbd> and writes <kbd>EAX</kbd> and the
+flags, the third uop reads only the temporary result, the fourth uop reads <kbd>ESI</kbd> and <kbd>EDI</kbd> again. No
+matter how these uops go into the RAT you can be sure that the uop that reads <kbd>EAX</kbd> goes
+together with one of the uops that read <kbd>ESI</kbd> and <kbd>EDI</kbd>. A register read stall is therefore
+inevitable for this instruction unless one of the registers has been modified recently.
+<p>
+<u>Push register</u><br>
+A push register instruction generates 3 uops. The first one (port 4) is a store instruction,
+reading the register. The second uop (port 3) generates the address, reading the stack
+pointer. The third uop (port 0 or 1) subtracts the word size from the stack pointer, reading
+and modifying the stack pointer.
+<p>
+<u>Pop register</u><br>
+A pop register instruction generates 2 uops. The first uop (port 2) loads the value, reading
+the stack pointer and writing to the register. The second uop (port 0 or 1) adjusts the stack
+pointer, reading and modifying the stack pointer.
+<p>
+<u>Call</u><br>
+A near call generates 4 uops (port 1, 4, 3, 01). The first two uops read only the instruction
+pointer which doesn't count because it cannot be renamed. The third uop reads the stack
+pointer. The last uop reads and modifies the stack pointer.
+<p>
+<u>Return</u><br>
+A near return generates 4 uops (port 2, 01, 01, 1). The first uop reads the stack pointer.
+The third uop reads and modifies the stack pointer.
+<p>
+An example of how to avoid a register read stall is given in example 2.6.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="17">17</a>. Out of order execution (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2><p>
+The reorder buffer (ROB) can hold 40 uops. Each uop waits in the ROB until all its
+operands are ready and there is a vacant execution unit for it. This makes out-of-order
+execution possible. If one part of the code is delayed because of a cache miss then it won't
+delay later parts of the code if they are independent of the delayed operations.
+<p>
+Writes to memory cannot execute out of order relative to other writes. There are four write
+buffers, so if you expect many cache misses on writes or you are writing to uncached
+memory then it is recommended that you schedule four writes at at time and make sure the
+processor has something else to do before you give it the next four writes. Memory reads
+and other instructions can execute out of order, except <kbd>IN, OUT</kbd> and serializing
+instructions.
+<p>
+If your code writes to a memory address and soon after reads from the same address, then
+the read may by mistake be executed before the write because the ROB doesn't know the
+memory addresses at the time of reordering. This error is detected when the write address
+is calculated, and then the read operation (which was executed speculatively)
+has to be re-done. The penalty for this is approximately 3 clocks. The only way to avoid this penalty is to
+make sure the execution unit has other things to do between a write and a subsequent read
+from the same memory address.
+<p>
+There are several execution units clustered around five ports. Port 0 and 1 are for
+arithmetic operations etc. Simple move, arithmetic and logic operations can go to either port 0 or 1,
+whichever is vacant first. Port 0 also handles multiplication, division, integer shifts and
+rotates, and floating point operations. Port 1 also handles jumps and some MMX
+and XMM operations. Port 2 handles all reads from memory and a few string and XMM operations, port 3 calculates addresses for memory
+write, and port 4 executes all memory write operations. In chapter <a href="#29">29</a> you'll find a complete
+list of the uops generated by code instructions with an indication of which ports they go to.
+Note that all memory write operations require two uops, one for port 3 and one for port 4,
+while memory read operations use only one uop (port 2).
+<p>
+In most cases each port can receive one new uop per clock cycle. This means that you can
+execute up to 5 uops in the same clock cycle if they go to five different ports, but since
+there is a limit of 3 uops per clock earlier in the pipeline you will never execute more than 3
+uops per clock on average.
+<p>
+You must make sure that no execution port receives more than one third of the uops if you
+want to maintain a throughput of 3 uops per clock. Use the table of uops in chapter
+<a href="#29">29</a> and
+count how many uops go to each port. If port 0 and 1 are saturated while port 2 is free then
+you can improve your code by replacing some <kbd>MOV register,register</kbd>
+or <kbd>MOV register,immediate</kbd> instructions with
+ <kbd>MOV register,memory</kbd> in order to move some
+of the load from port 0 and 1 to port 2.
+<p>
+Most uops take only one clock cycle to execute, but multiplications, divisions, and many
+floating point operations take more:
+<p>
+Floating point addition and subtraction takes 3 clocks, but the execution unit is fully
+pipelined so that it can receive a new <kbd>FADD</kbd> or <kbd>FSUB</kbd>
+in every clock cycle before the
+preceding ones are finished (provided, of course, that they are independent).
+<p>
+Integer multiplication takes 4 clocks, floating point multiplication 5, and
+MMX multiplication 3 clocks. Integer and MMX multiplication is pipelined so
+that it can receive a new instruction every clock cycle. Floating point
+multiplication is partially pipelined: The execution unit can receive a new
+<kbd>FMUL</kbd> instruction two clocks after the preceding one, so that the
+maximum throughput is one <kbd>FMUL</kbd> per two clock cycles. The holes
+between the <kbd>FMUL</kbd>'s cannot be filled by integer multiplications
+because they use the same circuitry. XMM additions and multiplications take
+3 and 4 clocks respectively, and are fully pipelined. But since each logical XMM
+register is implemented as two physical 64-bit registers, you need two uops for a
+packed XMM operation, and the throughput will then be one arithmetic XMM
+instruction every two clock cycles. XMM add and multiply instructions can execute
+in parallel because they don't use the same execution port.
+<p>
+Integer and floating point division takes up to 39 clocks and is not pipelined. This means
+that the execution unit cannot begin a new division until the previous division is finished.
+The same applies to squareroot and transcendental functions.
+<p>
+Also jump instructions, calls, and returns are not fully pipelined. You cannot execute a new
+jump in the first clock cycle after a preceding jump. So the maximum throughput for jumps,
+calls, and returns is one for every two clocks.
+<p>
+You should, of course, avoid instructions that generate many uops.
+The <kbd>LOOP XX</kbd>
+instruction, for example, should be replaced by <kbd>DEC ECX / JNZ XX</kbd>.
+<p>
+If you have consecutive <kbd>POP</kbd> instructions then you may break them up to reduce the
+number of uops:
+<pre>POP ECX / POP EBX / POP EAX ; can be changed to:
+MOV ECX,[ESP] / MOV EBX,[ESP+4] / MOV EAX,[ESP] / ADD ESP,12</pre>
+The former code generates 6 uops, the latter generates only 4 and decodes faster.
+Doing the same with <kbd>PUSH</kbd> instructions is less advantageous because the split-up code is likely to
+generate register read stalls unless you have other instructions to put in between or the
+registers have been renamed recently. Doing it with <kbd>CALL</kbd> and <kbd>RET</kbd>
+instructions will
+interfere with prediction in the return stack buffer. Note also that the
+<kbd>ADD ESP</kbd> instruction can cause an AGI stall in earlier processors.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="18">18</a>. Retirement (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2><p>
+Retirement is a process where the temporary registers used by the uops are copied into the
+permanent registers <kbd>EAX, EBX</kbd>, etc.
+When a uop has been executed it is marked in the ROB as ready to retire.
+<p>
+The retirement station can handle three uops per clock cycle. This may not seem like a
+problem because the throughput is already limited to 3 uops per clock in the RAT. But
+retirement may still be a bottleneck for two reasons. Firstly, instructions must retire in order.
+If a uop is executed out of order then it cannot retire before all preceding uops in the order
+have retired. And the second limitation is that taken jumps must retire in the first of the three
+slots in the retirement station. Just like decoder D1 and D2 can be idle if the next instruction
+only fits into D0, the last two slots in the retirement station can be idle if the next uop to
+retire is a taken jump. This is significant if you have a small loop where the number of uops
+in the loop is not divisible by three.
+<p>
+All uops stay in the reorder buffer (ROB) until they retire. The ROB can hold 40 uops. This
+sets a limit to the number of instructions that can execute during the long delay of a division
+or other slow operation. Before the division is finished the ROB will be filled up with
+executed uops waiting to retire. Only when the division is finished and retired can the
+subsequent uops begin to retire, because retirement takes place in order.
+<p>
+In case of speculative execution of predicted branches (see chapter <a href="#22">22</a>) the speculatively
+executed uops cannot retire until it is certain that the prediction was correct. If the prediction
+turns out to be wrong then the speculatively executed uops are discarded without
+retirement.
+<p>
+The following instructions cannot execute speculatively: memory writes,
+<kbd>IN, OUT</kbd>, and serializing instructions.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="19">19</a>. Partial stalls (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2>
+<h3><a name="19_1">19.1 Partial register stalls</a></h3><p>
+Partial register stall is a problem that occurs when you write to part of a 32
+bit register and later read from the whole register or a bigger part of it.
+Example:
+<pre> MOV AL, BYTE PTR [M8]
+ MOV EBX, EAX ; partial register stall</pre><p>
+This gives a delay of 5-6 clocks. The reason is that a temporary register has been assigned
+to <kbd>AL</kbd> (to make it independent of <kbd>AH</kbd>).
+The execution unit has to wait until the write to <kbd>AL</kbd> has
+retired before it is possible to combine the value from <kbd>AL</kbd> with the
+value of the rest of <kbd>EAX</kbd>.
+The stall can be avoided by changing to code to:
+<pre> MOVZX EBX, BYTE PTR [MEM8]
+ AND EAX, 0FFFFFF00h
+ OR EBX, EAX</pre>
+<p>
+Of course you can also avoid the partial stalls by putting in other instructions after the write
+to the partial register so that it has time to retire before you read from the full register.
+<p>
+You should be aware of partial stalls whenever you mix different data sizes (8, 16, and 32
+bits):
+<pre> MOV BH, 0
+ ADD BX, AX ; stall
+ INC EBX ; stall</pre><p>
+
+You don't get a stall when reading a partial register after writing to the full register, or a
+bigger part of it:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [MEM32]
+ ADD BL, AL ; no stall
+ ADD BH, AH ; no stall
+ MOV CX, AX ; no stall
+ MOV DX, BX ; stall</pre><p>
+
+The easiest way to avoid partial register stalls is to always use full registers
+and use <kbd>MOVZX</kbd> or <kbd>MOVSX</kbd> when reading from smaller memory
+operands. These instructions are fast on the
+PPro, PII and PIII, but slow on earlier processors. Therefore, a compromise is
+offered when you
+want your code to perform reasonably well on all processors. The replacement
+for <kbd>MOVZX EAX,BYTE PTR [M8]</kbd> looks like this:
+<pre> XOR EAX, EAX
+ MOV AL, BYTE PTR [M8]</pre><p>
+
+The PPro, PII and PIII processors make a special case out of this combination
+to avoid a partial
+register stall when later reading from <kbd>EAX</kbd>.
+The trick is that a register is tagged as empty
+when it is <kbd>XOR</kbd>'ed with itself. The processor remembers that the upper 24 bits of
+<kbd>EAX</kbd> are zero, so that a partial stall can be avoided. This mechanism
+works only on certain combinations:
+<pre> XOR EAX, EAX
+ MOV AL, 3
+ MOV EBX, EAX ; no stall
+
+ XOR AH, AH
+ MOV AL, 3
+ MOV BX, AX ; no stall
+
+ XOR EAX, EAX
+ MOV AH, 3
+ MOV EBX, EAX ; stall
+
+ SUB EBX, EBX
+ MOV BL, DL
+ MOV ECX, EBX ; no stall
+
+ MOV EBX, 0
+ MOV BL, DL
+ MOV ECX, EBX ; stall
+
+ MOV BL, DL
+ XOR EBX, EBX ; no stall</pre><p>
+
+Setting a register to zero by subtracting it from itself works the same as the
+<kbd>XOR</kbd>, but setting it to zero with the <kbd>MOV</kbd> instruction
+doesn't prevent the stall.
+<p>
+You can set the <kbd>XOR</kbd> outside a loop:
+<pre> XOR EAX, EAX
+ MOV ECX, 100
+LL: MOV AL, [ESI]
+ MOV [EDI], EAX ; no stall
+ INC ESI
+ ADD EDI, 4
+ DEC ECX
+ JNZ LL</pre><p>
+The processor remembers that the upper 24 bits of <kbd>EAX</kbd> are zero as
+long as you don't get
+an interrupt, misprediction, or other serializing event.
+<p>
+You should remember to neutralize any partial register you have used before calling a
+subroutine that might push the full register:
+<pre> ADD BL, AL
+ MOV [MEM8], BL
+ XOR EBX, EBX ; neutralize BL
+ CALL _HighLevelFunction</pre><p>
+Most high level language procedures push <kbd>EBX</kbd> at the start of the
+procedure which would generate a partial register stall in the example above
+if you hadn't neutralized <kbd>BL</kbd>.
+<p>
+Setting a register to zero with the <kbd>XOR</kbd> method doesn't break its dependency on earlier
+instructions:
+<pre> DIV EBX
+ MOV [MEM], EAX
+ MOV EAX, 0 ; break dependency
+ XOR EAX, EAX ; prevent partial register stall
+ MOV AL, CL
+ ADD EBX, EAX</pre><p>
+Setting <kbd>EAX</kbd> to zero twice here seems redundant, but without
+the <kbd>MOV EAX,0</kbd> the last
+instructions would have to wait for the slow <kbd>DIV</kbd> to finish, and
+without <kbd>XOR EAX,EAX</kbd> you
+would have a partial register stall.
+<p>
+The <kbd>FNSTSW AX</kbd> instruction is special: in 32 bit mode it behaves as
+if writing to the entire <kbd>EAX</kbd>. In fact, it does something like this
+in 32 bit mode:<br>
+<kbd> AND EAX,0FFFF0000h / FNSTSW TEMP / OR EAX,TEMP</kbd><br>
+hence, you don't get a partial register stall when reading <kbd>EAX</kbd>
+after this instruction in 32 bit mode:
+<pre> FNSTSW AX / MOV EBX,EAX ; stall only if 16 bit mode
+ MOV AX,0 / FNSTSW AX ; stall only if 32 bit mode</pre>
+
+<p>
+<h3><a name="19_2">19.2 Partial flags stalls</a></h3><p>
+The flags register can also cause partial register stalls:
+<pre> CMP EAX, EBX
+ INC ECX
+ JBE XX ; partial flags stall</pre><p>
+The <kbd>JBE</kbd> instruction reads both the carry flag and the zero flag.
+Since the <kbd>INC</kbd> instruction
+changes the zero flag, but not the carry flag, the <kbd>JBE</kbd> instruction has to wait for the two
+preceding instructions to retire before it can combine the carry flag from the <kbd>CMP</kbd> instruction
+and the zero flag from the <kbd>INC</kbd> instruction. This situation is likely to be a bug rather than an
+intended combination of flags. To correct it change <kbd>INC ECX</kbd> to <kbd>ADD ECX,1</kbd>.
+ A similar
+bug that causes a partial flags stall is <kbd>SAHF / JL XX</kbd>. The <kbd>JL</kbd>
+instruction tests the sign
+flag and the overflow flag, but <kbd>SAHF</kbd> doesn't change the overflow flag.
+To correct it, change
+<kbd>JL XX</kbd> to <kbd>JS XX</kbd>.
+<p>
+Unexpectedly (and contrary to what Intel manuals say) you also get a partial flags stall after
+an instruction that modifies some of the flag bits when reading only unmodified flag bits:
+<pre> CMP EAX, EBX
+ INC ECX
+ JC XX ; partial flags stall</pre><p>
+but not when reading only modified bits:
+<pre> CMP EAX, EBX
+ INC ECX
+ JE XX ; no stall</pre><p>
+
+Partial flags stalls are likely to occur on instructions that read many or
+all flags bits, i.e. <kbd>LAHF, PUSHF, PUSHFD</kbd>. The following instructions cause
+partial flags stalls when followed by <kbd>LAHF</kbd> or <kbd>PUSHF(D)</kbd>:
+<kbd>INC, DEC, TEST</kbd>, bit tests, bit scan, <kbd>CLC, STC, CMC, CLD, STD, CLI, STI, MUL,
+IMUL</kbd>, and all shifts and rotates.
+The following instructions do not cause partial flags stalls:
+<kbd>AND, OR, XOR, ADD, ADC, SUB, SBB, CMP, NEG</kbd>.
+It is strange that <kbd>TEST</kbd> and <kbd>AND</kbd> behave differently while, by definition, they
+do exactly the same thing to the flags. You may use a <kbd>SETcc</kbd>
+ instruction instead of <kbd>LAHF</kbd>
+or <kbd>PUSHF(D)</kbd> for storing the value of a flag in order to avoid a stall.
+<p>
+Examples:
+<pre> INC EAX / PUSHFD ; stall
+ ADD EAX,1 / PUSHFD ; no stall
+
+ SHR EAX,1 / PUSHFD ; stall
+ SHR EAX,1 / OR EAX,EAX / PUSHFD ; no stall
+
+ TEST EBX,EBX / LAHF ; stall
+ AND EBX,EBX / LAHF ; no stall
+ TEST EBX,EBX / SETZ AL ; no stall
+
+ CLC / SETZ AL ; stall
+ CLD / SETZ AL ; no stall</pre><p>
+The penalty for partial flags stalls is approximately 4 clocks.
+<p>
+
+<h3><a name="19_3">19.3 Flags stalls after shifts and rotates</a></h3><p>
+You can get a stall resembling the partial flags stall when reading any flag
+bit after a shift or rotate, except for shifts and rotates by one (short form):
+<pre> SHR EAX,1 / JZ XX ; no stall
+ SHR EAX,2 / JZ XX ; stall
+ SHR EAX,2 / OR EAX,EAX / JZ XX ; no stall
+
+ SHR EAX,5 / JC XX ; stall
+ SHR EAX,4 / SHR EAX,1 / JC XX ; no stall
+
+ SHR EAX,CL / JZ XX ; stall, even if CL = 1
+ SHRD EAX,EBX,1 / JZ XX ; stall
+ ROL EBX,8 / JC XX ; stall</pre><p>
+
+The penalty for these stalls is approximately 4 clocks.
+<p>
+
+<h3><a name="19_4">19.4 Partial memory stalls</a></h3><p>
+A partial memory stall is somewhat analogous to a partial register stall. It occurs when you
+mix data sizes for the same memory address:
+<pre> MOV BYTE PTR [ESI], AL
+ MOV EBX, DWORD PTR [ESI] ; partial memory stall</pre><p>
+Here you get a stall because the processor has to combine the byte written from AL with the
+next three bytes, which were in memory before, to get the four bytes needed for
+reading into <kbd>EBX</kbd>. The penalty is approximately 7-8 clocks.
+<p>
+Unlike the partial register stalls, you also get a partial memory stall when you write a bigger
+operand to memory and then read part of it, if the smaller part doesn't start at the same
+address:
+<pre> MOV DWORD PTR [ESI], EAX
+ MOV BL, BYTE PTR [ESI] ; no stall
+ MOV BH, BYTE PTR [ESI+1] ; stall</pre><p>
+You can avoid this stall by changing the last line to <kbd>MOV BH,AH</kbd>,
+but such a solution is not
+possible in a situation like this:
+<pre> FISTP QWORD PTR [EDI]
+ MOV EAX, DWORD PTR [EDI]
+ MOV EDX, DWORD PTR [EDI+4] ; stall</pre><p>
+
+Interestingly, you can also get a partial memory stall when writing and reading completely
+different addresses if they happen to have the same set-value in different cache banks:
+<pre> MOV BYTE PTR [ESI], AL
+ MOV EBX, DWORD PTR [ESI+4092] ; no stall
+ MOV ECX, DWORD PTR [ESI+4096] ; stall</pre>
+<p>
+<h2><a name="20">20</a>. Dependency chains (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2><p>
+A series of instructions where each instruction depends on the result of the preceding one
+is called a dependency chain. Long dependency chains should be avoided, if possible,
+because they prevent out-of-order and parallel execution.
+<p>
+Example:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [MEM1]
+ ADD EAX, [MEM2]
+ ADD EAX, [MEM3]
+ ADD EAX, [MEM4]
+ MOV [MEM5], EAX</pre><p>
+In this eaxmple, the <kbd>ADD</kbd> instructions generate 2 uops each, one for reading from memory
+(port 2), and one for adding (port 0 or 1). The read uops can execute out or order, while the
+add uops must wait for the previous uops to finish. This dependency chain does not take
+very long to execute, because each addition adds only 1 clock to the execution time. But if
+you have slow instructions like multiplications, or even worse: divisions, then you should
+definitely do something to break the dependency chain. The way to do this is to use multiple
+accumulators:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [MEM1] ; start first chain
+ MOV EBX, [MEM2] ; start other chain in different accumulator
+ IMUL EAX, [MEM3]
+ IMUL EBX, [MEM4]
+ IMUL EAX, EBX ; join chains in the end
+ MOV [MEM5], EAX</pre><p>
+Here, the second <kbd>IMUL</kbd> instruction can start before the first one is finished.
+Since the <kbd>IMUL</kbd> instruction has a delay of 4 clocks and is fully pipelined, you
+may have up to 4 accumulators.
+<p>
+Division is not pipelined so you cannot do the same with chained divisions,
+but you can of course multiply all the divisors and do only one division in
+the end.
+<p>
+Floating point instructions have a longer delay than integer instructions, so
+you should definitely break up long dependency chains with floating point
+instructions:
+<pre> FLD [MEM1] ; start first chain
+ FLD [MEM2] ; start second chain in different accumulator
+ FADD [MEM3]
+ FXCH
+ FADD [MEM4]
+ FXCH
+ FADD [MEM5]
+ FADD ; join chains in the end
+ FSTP [MEM6]</pre><p>
+You need a lot of <kbd>FXCH</kbd> instructions for this, but don't worry: they
+are cheap. <kbd>FXCH</kbd>
+instructions are resolved in the RAT by register renaming so they don't
+put any load on the execution ports. An <kbd>FXCH</kbd> does count as 1 uop in the RAT,
+ROB, and retirement station, though.
+<p>
+If the dependency chain is long you may need three accumulators:
+<pre> FLD [MEM1] ; start first chain
+ FLD [MEM2] ; start second chain
+ FLD [MEM3] ; start third chain
+ FADD [MEM4] ; third chain
+ FXCH ST(1)
+ FADD [MEM5] ; second chain
+ FXCH ST(2)
+ FADD [MEM6] ; first chain
+ FXCH ST(1)
+ FADD [MEM7] ; third chain
+ FXCH ST(2)
+ FADD [MEM8] ; second chain
+ FXCH ST(1)
+ FADD ; join first and third chain
+ FADD ; join with second chain
+ FSTP [MEM9]</pre><p>
+
+Avoid storing intermediate data in memory and read them immediately afterwards:
+<pre> MOV [TEMP], EAX
+ MOV EBX, [TEMP]</pre><p>
+There is a penalty for attempting to read from a memory address before a previous write to
+that address is finished. In the example above, change the last instruction to
+<kbd>MOV EBX,EAX</kbd>
+or put some other instructions in between.
+<p>
+There is one situation where you cannot avoid storing intermediate data in memory, and
+that is when transferring data from an integer register to a floating point register, or vice
+versa. For example:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [MEM1]
+ ADD EAX, [MEM2]
+ MOV [TEMP], EAX
+ FILD [TEMP]</pre><p>
+If you don't have anything to put in between the write to <kbd>TEMP</kbd> and the
+read from <kbd>TEMP</kbd>, then
+you may consider using a floating point register instead of <kbd>EAX</kbd>:
+<pre> FILD [MEM1]
+ FIADD [MEM2]</pre><p>
+
+Consecutive jumps, calls, or returns may also be considered dependency chains. The
+throughput for these instructions is one jump per two clock cycles. It is therefore
+recommended that you give the microprocessor something else to do between the jumps.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="21">21</a>. Searching for bottlenecks (PPro, PII and PIII)</h2><p>
+When optimizing code for these processors, it is important to analyze where the
+bottlenecks are. Spending time on optimizing away one bottleneck doesn't make sense if
+there is another bottleneck which is narrower.
+<p>
+If you expect code cache misses then you should restructure your code to keep the most
+used parts of code together.
+<p>
+If you expect many data cache misses then forget about everything else and concentrate
+on how to restructure your data to reduce the number of cache misses (chapter <a href="#7">7</a>), and
+avoid long dependency chains after a data read cache miss (chapter <a href="#20">20</a>).
+<p>
+If you have many divisions then try to reduce them (chapter <a href="#27_2">27.2</a>) and make sure the
+processor has something else to do during the divisions.
+<p>
+Dependency chains tend to hamper out-of-order execution (chapter <a href="#20">20</a>). Try to break long
+dependency chains, especially if they contain slow instructions such as multiplication,
+division, and floating point instructions.
+<p>
+If you have many jumps, calls, or returns, and especially if the jumps are poorly predictable,
+then try if some of them can be avoided. Replace conditional jumps with conditional moves
+if possible, and replace small procedures with macros (chapter <a href="#22_3">22.3</a>).
+<p>
+If you are mixing different data sizes (8, 16, and 32 bit integers) then look out for partial
+stalls. If you use <kbd>PUSHF</kbd> or <kbd>LAHF</kbd> instructions then look out for partial flags stalls. Avoid
+testing flags after shifts or rotates by more than 1 (chapter <a href="#19">19</a>).
+<p>
+If you aim at a throughput of 3 uops per clock cycle then be aware of possible delays in
+instruction fetch and decoding (chapter and <a href="#14">14</a> and <a href="#15">15</a>), especially in small loops.
+<p>
+The limit of two permanent register reads per clock cycle may reduce your throughput to
+less than 3 uops per clock cycle (chapter <a href="#16_2">16.2</a>). This is likely to happen if you often read
+registers more than 4 clock cycles after they last were modified. This may, for example,
+happen if you often use pointers for addressing your data but seldom modify the pointers.
+<p>
+A throughput of 3 uops per clock requires that no execution port gets more than one third of
+the uops (chapter <a href="#17">17</a>).
+<p>
+The retirement station can handle 3 uops per clock, but may be slightly less effective for
+taken jumps (chapter <a href="#18">18</a>).
+
+<p>
+<h2><a name="22">22</a>. Jumps and branches (all processors)</h2><p>
+The Pentium family of processors attempt to predict where a jump will go to, and whether a
+conditional jump will be taken or fall through. If the prediction is correct, then it can save a
+considerable amount of time by loading the subsequent instructions into the pipeline and
+start decoding them before the jump is executed. If the prediction turns out to be wrong,
+then the pipeline has to be flushed, which will cost a penalty depending on the length of the
+pipeline.
+<p>
+The predictions are based on a Branch Target Buffer (BTB) which stores the history for
+each branch or jump instruction and makes predictions based on the prior history of
+executions of each instruction. The BTB is organized like a set-associative cache where
+new entries are allocated according to a pseudo-random replacement method.
+<p>
+When optimizing code, it is important to minimize the number of misprediction penalties.
+This requires a good understanding of how the jump prediction works.
+<p>
+The branch prediction mechanisms are not described adequately in Intel manuals or
+anywhere else. I am therefore giving a very detailed description here. This information is
+based on my own research (with the help of Karki Jitendra Bahadur for the PPlain).
+<p>
+In the following, I will use the term 'control transfer instruction' for any instruction which can
+change the instruction pointer, including conditional and unconditional, direct and indirect,
+near and far, jumps, calls, and returns. All these instructions use prediction.
+<p>
+
+<h3><a name="22_1">22.1 Branch prediction in PPlain</a></h3><p>
+The branch prediction mechanism for the PPlain is very different from the other three
+processors. Information found in Intel documents and elsewhere on this subject is directly
+misleading, and following the advises given is such documents is likely to lead to
+sub-optimal code.
+<p>
+The PPlain has a branch target buffer (BTB), which can hold information for up to 256 jump
+instructions. The BTB is organized like a 4-way set-associative cache with 64 entries per
+way. This means that the BTB can hold no more than 4 entries with the same set value.
+Unlike the data cache, the BTB uses a pseudo random replacement algorithm, which
+means that a new entry will not necessarily displace the least recently used entry of the
+same set-value. How the set-value is calculated will be explained later. Each BTB entry
+stores the address of the jump target and a prediction state, which can have four different
+values:
+<p>
+state 0: "strongly not taken" <br>
+state 1: "weakly not taken" <br>
+state 2: "weakly taken" <br>
+state 3: "strongly taken"<p>
+
+A branch instruction is predicted to jump when in state 2 or 3, and to fall through when in
+state 0 or 1. The state transition works like a two-bit counter, so that the state is
+incremented when the branch is taken, and decremented when it falls through. The counter
+saturates, rather than wrap around, so that it does not decrement beyond 0 or increment
+beyond 3. Ideally, this would provide a reasonably good prediction, because a branch
+instruction would have to deviate twice from what it does most of the time, before the
+prediction changes.
+<p>
+However, this mechanism has been compromised by the fact that state 0 also means
+'unused BTB entry'. So a BTB entry in state 0 is the same as no BTB entry. This makes
+sense, because a branch instruction is predicted to fall through if it has no BTB entry. This
+improves the utilization of the BTB, because a branch instruction which is seldom taken will
+most of the time not take up any BTB entry.
+<p>
+Now, if a jumping instruction has no BTB entry, then a new BTB entry will be generated,
+and this new entry will always be set to state 3. This means that it is impossible to go from
+state 0 to state 1 (except for a very special case discussed later). From state 0 you can only
+go to state 3, if the branch is taken. If the branch falls through, then it will stay out of the
+BTB.
+<p>
+This is a serious design flaw. By throwing state 0 entries out of the BTB and always setting
+new entries to state 3, the designers apparently have given priority to minimizing the first
+time penalty for unconditional jumps and branches often taken, and ignored that this
+seriously compromises the basic idea behind the mechanism and reduces the performance
+in small innermost loops. The consequence of this flaw is, that a branch instruction which
+falls through most of the time will have up to three times as many mispredictions as a
+branch instruction which is taken most of the time. (Apparently, Intel engineers
+have been unaware of this flaw until I published my findings).
+<p>
+You may take this asymmetry into account by organizing your branches so that they are
+taken more often than not. Consider for example this if-then-else construction:
+<pre> TEST EAX,EAX
+ JZ A
+ <branch 1>
+ JMP E
+A: <branch 2>
+E:</pre>
+<p>
+If branch 1 is executed more often than branch 2, and branch 2 is seldom executed twice in
+succession, then you can reduce the number of branch mispredictions by up to a factor 3
+by swapping the two branches so that the branch instruction will jump more often than fall
+through:
+<pre> TEST EAX,EAX
+ JNZ A
+ <branch 2>
+ JMP E
+A: <branch 1>
+E:</pre><p>
+
+(This is contrary to the recommendations in Intel's manuals and tutorials).
+<p>
+There may be reasons to put the most often executed branch first, however:
+<ol>
+<li>Putting seldom executed branches away in the bottom of your code can improve code
+cache utilization.
+<li>A branch instruction seldom taken will stay out of the BTB most of the time, possibly
+improving BTB utilization.
+<li>The branch instruction will be predicted as not taken if it has been flushed out of the
+BTB by other branch instructions.
+<li>The asymmetry in branch prediction only exists on the PPlain.
+</ol>
+<p>
+These considerations have little weight, however, for small critical loops, so I would still
+recommend organizing branches with a skewed distribution so that the branch instruction is
+taken more often than not, unless branch 2 is executed so seldom, that misprediction
+doesn't matter.
+<p>
+Likewise, you should preferably organize loops with the testing branch instruction at the
+bottom, as in this example:
+<pre> MOV ECX, [N]
+L: MOV [EDI],EAX
+ ADD EDI,4
+ DEC ECX
+ JNZ L</pre><p>
+If N is high, then the JNZ instruction here will be taken more often than not, and never fall
+through twice in succession.
+<p>
+Consider the situation where a branch is taken every second time. The first time it jumps
+the BTB entry will go into state 3, and will then alternate between state 2 and 3. It is
+predicted to jump all the time, which gives 50% mispredictions. <a name="worstpred">Assume now that it deviates
+from this regular pattern and falls through an extra time</a>. The jump pattern is:<pre>
+01010100101010101010101, where 0 means nojump, and 1 means jump.
+ ^</pre>
+The extra nojump is indicated with a <kbd>^</kbd> above. After this incident, the BTB entry will alternate
+between state 1 and 2, which gives 100% mispredictions. It will continue in this unfortunate
+mode until there is another deviation from the 0101 pattern. This is the worst case for this
+branch prediction mechanism.
+<p>
+<h4>22.1.2 BTB is looking ahead (PPlain)</h4>
+The BTB mechanism is counting instruction pairs, rather than single instructions, so you
+have to know how instructions are pairing in order to analyze where a BTB entry is stored.
+The BTB entry for any control instruction is attached to the address of the U-pipe
+instruction in the preceding instruction pair. (An unpaired instruction counts as one pair).
+Example:
+<pre> SHR EAX,1
+ MOV EBX,[ESI]
+ CMP EAX,EBX
+ JB L</pre><p>
+Here <kbd>SHR</kbd> pairs with <kbd>MOV</kbd>, and <kbd>CMP</kbd> pairs with
+<kbd>JB</kbd>. The BTB entry for <kbd>JB L</kbd> is thus
+attached to the address of the <kbd>SHR EAX,1</kbd> instruction. When this BTB entry is met, and if it
+is in state 2 or 3, then the Pentium will read the target address from the BTB entry, and load
+the instructions following L into the pipeline. This happens before the branch instruction has
+been decoded, so the Pentium relies solely on the information in the BTB when doing this.
+<p>
+You may remember, that instructions are seldom pairing the first time they are executed
+(see chapter <a href="#8">8</a>). If the instructions above are not pairing, then the BTB entry should be
+attached to the address of the <kbd>CMP</kbd> instruction, and this entry would be wrong on the next
+execution, when instructions are pairing. However, in most cases the PPlain is smart
+enough to not make a BTB entry when there is an unused pairing opportunity, so you don't
+get a BTB entry until the second execution, and hence you won't get a prediction until the
+third execution. (In the rare case, where every second instruction is a single-byte
+instruction, you may get a BTB entry on the first execution which becomes invalid in the
+second execution, but since the instruction it is attached to will then go to the V-pipe, it is
+ignored and gives no penalty. A BTB entry is only read if it is attached to the address of a
+U-pipe instruction).
+<p>
+A BTB entry is identified by its set-value which is equal to bits 0-5 of the address it is
+attached to. Bits 6-31 are then stored in the BTB as a tag. Addresses which are spaced a
+multiple of 64 bytes apart will have the same set-value. You can have no more than four
+BTB entries with the same set-value. If you want to check whether your jump instructions
+contend for the same BTB entries, then you have to compare bits 0-5 of the addresses of
+the U-pipe instructions in the preceding instruction pairs. This is very tedious, and I have
+never heard of anybody doing so. There are no tools available to do this job for you.
+<p>
+<h4>22.1.3 Consecutive branches (PPlain)</h4><p>
+When a jump is mispredicted, then the pipeline gets flushed. If the next instruction pair
+executed also contains a control transfer instruction, then the PPlain won't load its target
+because it cannot load a new target while the pipeline is being flushed. The result is that the
+second jump instruction is predicted to fall through regardless of the state of its BTB entry.
+Therefore, if the second jump is also taken, then you will get another penalty. The state of
+the BTB entry for the second jump instruction does get correctly updated, though. If you
+have a long chain of control transfer instructions, and the first jump in the chain is
+mispredicted, then the pipeline will get flushed all the time, and you will get nothing but
+mispredictions until you meet an instruction pair which does not jump. The most extreme
+case of this is a loop which jumps to itself: It will get a misprediction penalty for each
+iteration.
+<p>
+This is not the only problem with consecutive control transfer instructions. Another problem
+is that you can have another branch instruction between a BTB entry and the control
+transfer instruction it belongs to. If the first branch instruction jumps to somewhere else,
+then strange things may happen. Consider this example:
+<pre> SHR EAX,1
+ MOV EBX,[ESI]
+ CMP EAX,EBX
+ JB L1
+ JMP L2
+
+L1: MOV EAX,EBX
+ INC EBX</pre><p>
+
+When <kbd>JB L1</kbd> falls through, then you will get a BTB entry for
+<kbd>JMP L2</kbd> attached to the
+address of <kbd>CMP EAX,EBX</kbd>. But what will happen when <kbd>JB L1</kbd>
+later is taken? At the time
+when the BTB entry for <kbd>JMP L2</kbd> is read, the processor doesn't know that the next
+instruction pair does not contain a jump instruction, so it will actually predict the instruction
+pair <kbd>MOV EAX,EBX / INC EBX</kbd> to jump to <kbd>L2</kbd>.
+The penalty for predicting non-jump
+instructions to jump is 3 clock cycles. The BTB entry for <kbd>JMP L2</kbd> will get its state
+decremented, because it is applied to something which doesn't jump. If we keep going to
+<kbd>L1</kbd>, then the BTB entry for <kbd>JMP L2</kbd> will be decremented to state 1 and 0, so that the
+problem will disappear until next time <kbd>JMP L2</kbd> is executed.
+<p>
+The penalty for predicting the non-jumping instructions to jump only occurs when the jump
+to <kbd>L1</kbd> is predicted. In the case that <kbd>JB L1</kbd> is mispredictedly
+jumping, then the pipeline gets
+flushed and we won't get the false <kbd>L2</kbd> target loaded, so in this case we will not see the
+penalty of predicting the non-jumping instructions to jump, but we do get the BTB entry for
+<kbd>JMP L2</kbd> decremented.
+<p>
+Suppose, now, that we replace the <kbd>INC EBX</kbd> instruction above with another jump
+instruction. This third jump instruction will then use the same BTB entry as
+<kbd>JMP L2</kbd> with
+the possible penalty of predicting a wrong target, (unless it happens to also
+have <kbd>L2</kbd> as target).
+<p>
+To summarize, consecutive jumps can lead to the following problems:
+<ul>
+<li>failure to load a jump target when the pipeline is being flushed by a preceding
+mispredicted jump.
+<li>a BTB entry being mis-applied to non-jumping instructions and predicting them to jump.
+<li>a second consequence of the above is that a mis-applied BTB entry will get its state
+decremented, possibly leading to a later misprediction of the jump it belongs to. Even
+unconditional jumps can be predicted to fall through for this reason.
+<li>two jump instructions may share the same BTB entry, leading to the prediction of a
+wrong target.
+</ul>
+<p>
+
+All this mess may give you a lot of penalties, so you should definitely avoid having an
+instruction pair containing a jump immediately after another poorly predictable control
+transfer instruction or its target.
+<p>
+It is time for another illustrative example:
+<pre> CALL P
+ TEST EAX,EAX
+ JZ L2
+L1: MOV [EDI],EBX
+ ADD EDI,4
+ DEC EAX
+ JNZ L1
+L2: CALL P</pre><p>
+
+This looks like a quite nice and normal piece of code: A function call, a loop which is
+bypassed when the count is zero, and another function call. How many problems can you
+spot in this program?
+<p>
+First, we may note that the function <kbd>P</kbd> is called alternatingly from two different locations.
+This means that the target for the return from <kbd>P</kbd> will be changing all the time. Consequently,
+the return from <kbd>P</kbd> will always be mispredicted.
+<p>
+Assume, now, that <kbd>EAX</kbd> is zero. The jump to <kbd>L2</kbd> will not have its target loaded because the
+mispredicted return caused a pipeline flush. Next, the second <kbd>CALL P</kbd> will also fail to have
+its target loaded because <kbd>JZ L2</kbd> caused a pipeline flush. Here we have the situation where
+a chain of consecutive jumps makes the pipeline flush repeatedly because the first jump
+was mispredicted. The BTB entry for <kbd>JZ L2</kbd> is stored at the address of <kbd>P</kbd>'s return
+instruction. This BTB entry will now be mis-applied to whatever comes after the second
+<kbd>CALL P</kbd>, but that doesn't give a penalty because the pipeline is flushed by the mispredicted
+second return.
+<p>
+Now, let's see what happens if <kbd>EAX</kbd> has a nonzero value the next time:
+<kbd>JZ L2</kbd> is always
+predicted to fall through because of the flush. The second <kbd>CALL P</kbd>
+has a BTB entry at the
+address of <kbd>TEST EAX,EAX</kbd>. This entry will be mis-applied to the
+<kbd>MOV/ADD</kbd> pair, predicting
+it to jump to <kbd>P</kbd>. This causes a flush which prevents <kbd>JNZ L1</kbd>
+from loading its target. If we
+have been here before, then the second <kbd>CALL P</kbd> will have another BTB entry at the
+address of <kbd>DEC EAX</kbd>. On the second and third iteration of the loop, this entry will also be
+mis-applied to the <kbd>MOV/ADD</kbd> pair, until it has had its state decremented to 1 or 0. This will
+not cause a penalty on the second iteration because the flush from <kbd>JNZ L1</kbd> prevents it
+from loading its false target, but on the third iteration it will. The subsequent iterations of the
+loop have no penalties, but when it exits, <kbd>JNZ L1</kbd> is mispredicted. The flush would now
+prevent <kbd>CALL P</kbd> from loading its target, were it not for the fact that the BTB entry for
+<kbd>CALL P</kbd> has already been destroyed by being mis-applied several times.
+<p>
+We can improve this code by putting in some <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s to separate all consecutive jumps:
+<pre> CALL P
+ TEST EAX,EAX
+ NOP
+ JZ L2
+L1: MOV [EDI],EBX
+ ADD EDI,4
+ DEC EAX
+ JNZ L1
+L2: NOP
+ NOP
+ CALL P</pre><p>
+The extra <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s cost 2 clock cycles, but they save much more.
+Furthermore, <kbd>JZ L2</kbd> is now
+moved to the U-pipe which reduces its penalty from 4 to 3 when mispredicted. The only
+problem that remains is that the returns from <kbd>P</kbd> are always mispredicted. This problem can
+only be solved by replacing the call to <kbd>P</kbd> by an inline macro (if you have enough code
+cache).
+<p>
+The lesson to learn from this example is that you should always look carefully for
+consecutive jumps and see if you can save time by inserting some <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s. You should be
+particularly aware of those situations where misprediction is unavoidable, such as loop exits
+and returns from procedures which are called from varying locations. If you have something
+useful to put in, instead of the <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s, then you should of course do so.
+<p>
+Multiway branches (case statements) may be implemented either as a tree of branch
+instructions or as a list of jump addresses. If you choose to use a tree of branch
+instructions, then you have to include some <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s or other instructions to separate the
+consecutive branches. A list of jump addresses may therefore be a better solution on the
+PPlain. The list of jump addresses should be placed in the data segment. Never put data in
+the code segment!
+<p>
+<h4>22.1.4 Tight loops (PPlain)</h4><p>
+In a small loop you will often access the same BTB entry repeatedly with small intervals.
+This never causes a stall. Rather than waiting for a BTB entry to be updated, the PPlain
+somehow bypasses the pipeline and gets the resulting state from the last jump before it has
+been written to the BTB. This mechanism is almost transparent to the user, but it does in
+some cases have funny effects: You can see a branch prediction going from state 0 to state
+1, rather than to state 3, if the zero has not yet been written to the BTB. This happens if the
+loop has no more than four instruction pairs. In loops with only two instruction pairs you
+may sometimes have state 0 for two consecutive iterations without going out of the BTB. In
+such small loops it also happens in rare cases that the prediction uses the state resulting
+from two iterations ago, rather than from the last iteration. These funny effects will usually
+not have any negative effects on performance.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="22_2">22.2 Branch prediction in PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII</a></h3>
+<h4>22.2.1 BTB organization (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+The branch target buffer (BTB) of the PMMX has 256 entries organized as 16 ways * 16
+sets. Each entry is identified by bits 2-31 of the address of the last byte of the control
+transfer instruction it belongs to. Bits 2-5 define the set, and bits 6-31 are stored in the BTB
+as a tag. Control transfer instructions which are spaced 64 bytes apart have the
+same set-value and may therefore occasionally push each other out of the BTB. Since there are 16
+ways per set, this won't happen too often.
+<p>
+The branch target buffer (BTB) of the PPro, PII and PIII has 512 entries organized as 16 ways *
+32 sets. Each entry is identified by bits 4-31 of the address of the last byte of the control
+transfer instruction it belongs to. Bits 4-8 define the set, and all bits are stored in the BTB as
+a tag. Control transfer instructions which are spaced 512 bytes apart have the
+same set-value and may therefore occasionally push each other out of the BTB. Since there are 16
+ways per set, this won't happen too often.
+<p>
+The PPro, PII and PIII allocate a BTB entry to any control transfer instruction the first time it is
+executed. The PMMX allocates it the first time it jumps. A branch instruction which never
+jumps will stay out of the BTB on the PMMX. As soon as it has jumped once, it will stay in
+the BTB, even if it never jumps again.
+<p>
+An entry may be pushed out of the BTB when another control transfer instruction with the
+same set-value needs a BTB entry.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.2 Misprediction penalty (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+In the PMMX, the penalty for misprediction of a conditional jump is 4 clocks in the U-pipe,
+and 5 clocks if it is executed in the V-pipe. For all other control transfer instructions it is 4
+clocks.
+<p>
+In the PPro, PII and PIII, the misprediction penalty is very high due to the long pipeline. A
+misprediction usually costs between 10 and 20 clock cycles. It is therefore very important to
+be aware of poorly predictable branches when running on PPro, PII and PIII.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.3 Pattern recognition for conditional jumps (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+These processors have an advanced pattern recognition mechanism which will correctly
+predict a branch instruction which, for example, is taken every fourth time and falls through
+the other three times. In fact, they can predict any repetitive pattern of jumps and nojumps
+with a period of up to five, and many patterns with higher periods.
+<p>
+The mechanism is a so-called "two-level adaptive branch prediction scheme", invented by
+T.-Y. Yeh and Y. N. Patt. It is based on the same kind of two-bit counters as described
+above for the PPlain (but without the assymmetry flaw). The counter is incremented when
+the jump is taken and decremented when not taken. There is no wrap-around when
+counting up from 3 or down from 0. A branch instruction is predicted to be taken when the
+corresponding counter is in state 2 or 3, and to fall through when in state 0 or 1. An
+impressive improvement is now obtained by having sixteen such counters for each BTB
+entry. It selects one of these sixteen counters based on the history of the branch instruction
+for the last four executions. If, for example, the branch instruction jumps once and then falls
+through three times, then you have the history bits 1000 (1=jump, 0=nojump). This will
+make it use counter number 8 (1000 binary = 8) for predicting the next time and update
+counter 8 afterwards.
+<p>
+If the sequence 1000 is always followed by a 1, then counter number 8 will soon end up in
+its highest state (state 3) so that it will always predict a 1000 sequence to be followed by a
+1. It will take two deviations from this pattern to change the prediction. The repetitive pattern
+100010001000 will have counter 8 in state 3, and counter 1, 2 and 4 in state 0. The other
+twelve counters will be unused.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.4 Perfectly predicted patterns (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+A repetitive branch pattern is predicted perfectly by this mechanism if
+every 4-bit sub-sequence in the period is unique.
+Below is a list of repetitive branch patterns which are predicted perfectly:<p>
+<table border=1 cellpadding=1 cellspacing=1>
+<tr><td class="a3"> period </td>
+<td class="a3"> perfectly predicted patterns </td></tr>
+<tr><td>1-5</td><td>all</td></tr>
+<tr><td>6</td><td>000011, 000101, 000111, 001011</td></tr>
+<tr><td>7</td><td>0000101, 0000111, 0001011</td></tr>
+<tr><td>8</td><td>00001011, 00001111, 00010011, 00010111, 00101101</td></tr>
+<tr><td>9</td><td>000010011, 000010111, 000100111, 000101101</td></tr>
+<tr><td>10</td><td>0000100111, 0000101101, 0000101111, 0000110111, 0001010011, 0001011101</td></tr>
+<tr><td>11</td><td>00001001111, 00001010011, 00001011101, 00010100111</td></tr>
+<tr><td>12</td><td>000010100111, 000010111101, 000011010111, 000100110111, 000100111011</td></tr>
+<tr><td>13</td><td>0000100110111, 0000100111011, 0000101001111</td></tr>
+<tr><td>14</td><td>00001001101111, 00001001111011, 00010011010111, 00010011101011, 00010110011101, 00010110100111</td></tr>
+<tr><td>15</td><td>000010011010111, 000010011101011, 000010100110111,
+000010100111011, 000010110011101, 000010110100111,
+000010111010011, 000011010010111</td></tr>
+<tr><td>16</td><td>0000100110101111, 0000100111101011, 0000101100111101,
+0000101101001111</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>When reading this table, you should be aware that if a pattern is predicted correctly than the
+same pattern reversed (read backwards) is also predicted correctly, as well as the same
+pattern with all bits inverted. Example:
+In the table we find the pattern: 0001011.
+Reversing this pattern gives: 1101000.
+Inverting all bits gives: 1110100.
+Both reversing and inverting: 0010111.
+These four patterns are all recognizable. Rotating the pattern one place to the left gives:
+0010110. This is of course not a new pattern, only a phase shifted version of the same
+pattern. All patterns which can be derived from one of the patterns in the table by reversing,
+inverting and rotating are also recognizable. For reasons of brevity, these are not listed.
+<p>
+It takes two periods for the pattern recognition mechanism to learn a regular repetitive
+pattern after the BTB entry has been allocated. The pattern of mispredictions in the learning
+period is not reproducible. This is probably because the BTB entry contained something
+prior to allocation. Since BTB entries are allocated according to a random scheme, there is
+little chance of predicting what happens during the initial learning period.
+<p>
+
+<h4>22.2.5 Handling deviations from a regular pattern (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+The branch prediction mechanism is also extremely good at handling 'almost regular'
+patterns, or deviations from the regular pattern. Not only does it learn what the regular
+pattern looks like. It also learns what deviations from the regular pattern look like. If
+deviations are always of the same type, then it will remember what comes after the irregular
+event, and the deviation will cost only one misprediction.
+<p>
+Example:
+<pre>
+0001110001110001110001011100011100011100010111000
+ ^ ^</pre><p>
+In this sequence, a 0 means nojump, a 1 means jump. The mechanism learns that the
+repeated sequence is 000111. The first irregularity is an unexpected 0, which I have
+marked with a <kbd>^</kbd>. After this 0 the next three jumps may be mispredicted, because it hasn't
+learned what comes after 0010, 0101, and 1011. After one or two irregularities of the same
+kind it has learned that after 0010 comes a 1, after 0101 comes 1, and after 1011 comes 1.
+This means that after at most two irregularities of the same kind, it has learned to handle
+this kind of irregularity with only one misprediction.
+<p>
+The prediction mechanism is also very effective when alternating between two different
+regular patterns. If, for example, we have the pattern 000111 (with period 6) repeated many
+times, then the pattern 01 (period 2) many times, and then return to the 000111 pattern,
+then the mechanism doesn't have to relearn the 000111 pattern, because the counters
+used in the 000111 sequence have been left un-touched during the 01 sequence. After a
+few alternations between the two patterns, it has also learned to handle the changes of
+pattern with only one misprediction for each time the pattern is switched.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.6 Patterns which are not predicted perfectly (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+The simplest branch pattern which cannot be predicted perfectly is a branch which is taken
+on every 6'th execution. The pattern is:
+<pre>000001000001000001
+ ^^ ^^ ^^
+ ab ab ab</pre><p>
+The sequence 0000 is alternatingly followed by a 0, in the positions marked a above, and
+by a 1, in the positions marked b. This affects counter number 0 which will count up and
+down all the time. If counter 0 happens to start in state 0 or 1, then it will alternate between
+state 0 and 1. This will lead to a misprediction in position b. If counter 0 happens to start in
+state 3, then it will alternate between state 2 and 3 which will cause a misprediction in
+position a. The worst case is when it starts in state 2. It will alternate between state 1 and 2
+with the unfortunate consequence that we get a misprediction both in position a and b. (This
+is analogous to the worst case for the PPlain explained <a href="#worstpred">above</a>). Which of these four
+situations we will get depends on the history of the BTB entry prior to allocation to this
+branch. This is beyond our control because of the random allocation method.
+<p>
+In principle, it is possible to avoid the worst case situation where we have two mispredictions
+per cycle by giving it an initial branch sequence which is specially designed for putting the
+counter in the desired state. Such an approach cannot be recommended, however,
+because of the considerable extra code complexity required, and because whatever
+information we have put into the counter is likely to be lost during the next timer interrupt or
+task switch.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.7 Completely random patterns (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+The powerful capability of pattern recognition has a minor drawback in the case of
+completely random sequences with no regularities.
+<p>
+The following table lists the experimental fraction of mispredictions for a completely random
+sequence of jumps and nojumps:<p>
+
+<table border=1 cellpadding=1 cellspacing=1><tr>
+<td align="center" class="a3"> fraction of jumps/nojumps </td>
+<td align="center" class="a3"> fraction of mispredictions </td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.001/0.999</td>
+<td align="center">0.001001</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.01/0.99</td>
+<td align="center">0.0101</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.05/0.95</td>
+<td align="center">0.0525</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.10/0.90</td>
+<td align="center">0.110</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.15/0.85</td>
+<td align="center">0.171</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.20/0.80</td>
+<td align="center">0.235</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.25/0.75</td>
+<td align="center">0.300</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.30/0.70</td>
+<td align="center">0.362</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.35/0.65</td>
+<td align="center">0.418</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.40/0.60</td>
+<td align="center">0.462</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.45/0.55</td>
+<td align="center">0.490</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">0.50/0.50</td>
+<td align="center">0.500</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+The fraction of mispredictions is slightly higher than it would be without pattern recognition
+because the processor keeps trying to find repeated patterns in a sequence which has no
+regularities.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.8 Tight loops (PMMX)</h4><p>
+The branch prediction is not reliable in tiny loops where the pattern recognition mechanism
+doesn't have time to update its data before the next branch is met. This means that simple
+patterns, which would normally be predicted perfectly, are not recognized. Incidentally,
+some patterns which normally would not be recognized, are predicted perfectly in tight
+loops. For example, a loop which always repeats 6 times would have the branch pattern
+111110 for the branch instruction at the bottom of the loop. This pattern would normally
+have one or two mispredictions per iteration, but in a tight loop it has none. The same
+applies to a loop which repeats 7 times. Most other repeat counts are predicted poorer in
+tight loops than normally. This means that a loop which iterates 6 or 7 times should
+preferably be tight, whereas other loops should preferably not be tight. You may unroll a
+loop if necessary to make it less tight.
+<p>
+To find out whether a loop will behave as 'tight' on the PMMX you may follow the following
+rule of thumb: Count the number of instructions in the loop. If the number is 6 or less, then
+the loop will behave as tight. If you have more than 7 instructions, then you can be
+reasonably sure that the pattern recognition functions normally. Strangely enough, it doesn't
+matter how many clock cycles each instruction takes, whether it has stalls, or whether it is
+paired or not. Complex integer instructions do not count. A loop can have lots of complex
+integer instructions and still behave as a tight loop. A complex integer instruction
+is a non-pairable integer instruction which always takes more than one clock cycle. Complex floating
+point instructions and MMX instructions still count as one. Note, that this rule of thumb is
+heuristic and not completely reliable. In important cases you may want to do your own
+testing. You can use performance monitor counter number 35H for the PMMX to count
+branch mispredictions. Test results may not be completely deterministic, because branch
+predictions may depend on the history of the BTB entry prior to allocation.
+<p>
+Tight loops on PPro, PII and PIII are predicted normally, and take minimum two clock cycles per
+iteration.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.9 Indirect jumps and calls (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+There is no pattern recognition for indirect jumps and calls, and the BTB can remember no
+more than one target for an indirect jump. It is simply predicted to go to the same target as it
+did last time.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.10 JECXZ and LOOP (PMMX)</h4><p>
+There is no pattern recognition for these two instructions in the PMMX. They are simply
+predicted to go the same way as last time they were executed. These two instructions
+should be avoided in time-critical code for PMMX. (In PPro, PII and PIII they are predicted using
+pattern recognition, but the loop instruction is still inferior to <kbd>DEC ECX / JNZ</kbd>).
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.11 Returns (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+The PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII processors have a Return Stack Buffer (RSB) which is used for
+predicting return instructions. The RSB works as a First-In-Last-Out buffer. Each time a
+call instruction is executed, the corresponding return address is pushed into the RSB. And
+each time a return instruction is executed, a return address is pulled out of the RSB and
+used for prediction of the return. This mechanism makes sure that return instructions are
+correctly predicted when the same subroutine is called from several different locations.
+<p>
+In order to make sure this mechanism works correctly, you must make sure that all calls
+and returns are matched. Never jump out of a subroutine without a return and never use a
+return as an indirect jump if speed is critical.
+<p>
+The RSB can hold four entries in the PMMX, sixteen in the PPro, PII and PIII. In the case where
+the RSB is empty, the return instruction is predicted in the same way as an indirect jump,
+i.e. it is expected to go to the same target as it did last time.
+<p>
+On the PMMX, when subroutines are nested deeper than four levels then the innermost
+four levels use the RSB, whereas all subsequent returns from the outer levels use the
+simpler prediction mechanism as long as there are no new calls. A return instruction which
+uses the RSB still occupies a BTB entry. Four entries in the RSB of the PMMX doesn't
+sound of much, but it is probably sufficient. Subroutine nesting deeper than four levels is
+certainly not unusual, but only the innermost levels matter in terms of speed, except
+possibly for recursive procedures.
+<p>
+On the PPro, PII and PIII, when subroutines are nested deeper than sixteen levels then the
+innermost 16 levels use the RSB, whereas all subsequent returns from the outer levels are
+mispredicted. Recursive subroutines should therefore not go deeper than 16 levels.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.12 Static prediction in PMMX</h4><p>
+A control transfer instruction which has not been seen before or which is not in the BTB is
+always predicted to fall through on the PMMX. It doesn't matter whether it goes forward or
+backwards.
+<p>
+A branch instruction will not get a BTB entry if it always falls through. As soon as it is taken
+once, it will get into the BTB and stay there no matter how many times it falls through. A
+control transfer instruction can only go out of the BTB when it is pushed out by another
+control transfer instruction which steals its BTB entry.
+<p>
+Any control transfer instruction which jumps to the address immediately following itself will
+not get a BTB entry. Example: <pre>
+ JMP SHORT LL
+LL:</pre><p>
+This instruction will never get a BTB entry and therefore always have a misprediction
+penalty.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.13 Static prediction in PPro, PII and PIII</h4><p>
+On PPro, PII and PIII, a control transfer instruction which has not been seen before or which is
+not in the BTB is predicted to fall through if it goes forwards, and to be taken if it goes
+backwards (e.g. a loop). Static prediction takes longer time than dynamic prediction on
+these processors.
+<p>
+If your code is unlikely to be cached then it is preferred to have the most frequently
+executed branch fall through in order to improve prefetching.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.14 Close jumps (PMMX)</h4><p>
+On the PMMX, there is a risk that two control transfer instructions will share the same BTB
+entry if they are too close to each other. The obvious result is that they will always be
+mispredicted.
+<p>
+The BTB entry for a control transfer instruction is identified by bits 2-31 of the address of
+the last byte in the instruction. If two control transfer instructions are so close together that
+they differ only in bits 0-1 of the address, then we have the problem of a shared BTB entry.
+Example:
+<pre> CALL P
+ JNC SHORT L</pre><p>
+If the last byte of the <kbd>CALL</kbd> instruction and the last byte of the <kbd>JNC</kbd> instruction lie within the
+same dword of memory, then we have the penalty. You have to look at the output list file
+from the assembler to see whether the two addresses are separated by a DWORD boundary
+or not. (A DWORD boundary is an address divisible by 4).
+<p>
+There are various ways to solve this problem: <br>
+1. Move the code sequence a little up or down in memory so that you get a dword
+boundary between the two addresses.<br>
+2. Change the short jump to a near jump (with 4 bytes displacement) so that the end of the
+instruction is moved further down. There is no way you can force the assembler to use
+anything but the shortest form of an instruction so you have to hard-code the near
+branch if you choose this solution.<br>
+3. Put in some instruction between the <kbd>CALL</kbd> and the <kbd>JNC</kbd> instructions. This is the easiest
+method, and the only method if you don't know where DWORD boundaries are because
+your segment is not dword aligned or because the code keeps moving up and down as
+you make changes in the preceding code:<br>
+<pre> CALL P
+ MOV EAX,EAX ; two bytes filler to be safe
+ JNC SHORT L</pre><p>
+If you want to avoid problems on the PPlain too, then put in two <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s instead to prevent
+pairing (see section 22.1.3 above).
+ <p>
+The <kbd>RET</kbd> instruction is particularly prone to this problem because it is only one byte long:
+<pre> JNZ NEXT
+ RET</pre><p>
+Here you may need up to three bytes of fillers:
+<pre> JNZ NEXT
+ NOP
+ MOV EAX,EAX
+ RET</pre>
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.15 Consecutive calls or returns (PMMX)</h4><p>
+There is a penalty when the first instruction pair following the target label of a call contains
+another call instruction or if a return follows immediately after another return. Example:
+<pre>FUNC1 PROC NEAR
+ NOP ; avoid call after call
+ NOP
+ CALL FUNC2
+ CALL FUNC3
+ NOP ; avoid return after return
+ RET
+FUNC1 ENDP</pre><p>
+Two <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s are required before <kbd>CALL FUNC2</kbd> because a single
+<kbd>NOP</kbd> would pair with the
+<kbd>CALL</kbd>. One <kbd>NOP</kbd> is enough before the <kbd>RET</kbd> because
+<kbd>RET</kbd> is unpairable. No <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s are required
+between the two <kbd>CALL</kbd> instructions because there is no penalty for call after return. (On the
+PPlain you would need two <kbd>NOP</kbd>'s here too).
+<p>
+The penalty for chained calls only occurs when the same subroutines are called from more
+than one location (probably because the RSB needs updating). Chained returns always
+have a penalty. There is sometimes a small stall for a jump after a call, but no penalty for
+return after call; call after return; jump, call, or return after jump; or jump after return.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.16 Chained jumps (PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+A jump, call, or return cannot be executed in the first clock cycle after a previous jump, call,
+or return. Therefore, chained jumps will take two clock cycles for each jump, and you may
+want to make sure that the processor has something else to do in parallel. For the same
+reason, a loop will take at least two clock cycles per iteration on these processors.
+<p>
+<h4>22.2.17 Designing for branch predictabiligy (PMMX, PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+Multiway branches (switch/case statements) are implemented either as an indirect jump
+using a list of jump addresses, or as a tree of branch instructions. Since indirect jumps are
+poorly predicted, the latter method may be preferred if easily predicted patterns can be
+expected and you have enough BTB entries. In case you decide to use the former method,
+then it is recommended that you put the list of jump addresses in the data segment.
+<p>
+You may want to reorganize your code so that branch patterns which are not predicted
+perfectly can be replaced by other patterns which are. Consider, for example, a loop which
+always executes 20 times. The conditional jump at the bottom of the loop is taken 19 times
+and falls through every 20'th time. This pattern is regular, but not recognized by the pattern
+recognition mechanism, so the fall-through is always mispredicted. You may make two
+nested loops by four and five, or unroll the loop by four and let it execute 5 times, in order to
+have only recognizable patterns. This kind of complicated schemes are only worth the extra
+code on the PPro, PII and PIII processors where mispredictions are very expensive. For higher
+loop counts there is no reason to do anything about the single misprediction.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="22_3">22.3. Avoiding jumps (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+There can be many reasons why you may want reduce the number of jumps, calls and
+returns:
+<ul>
+<li>jump mispredictions are very expensive,
+<li>there are various penalties for consecutive or chained jumps, depending on the
+processor,
+<li>jump instructions may push one another out of the branch target buffer because of the
+random replacement algorithm,
+<li>a return takes 2 clocks on PPlain and PMMX, calls and returns generate 4 uops on
+PPro, PII and PIII.
+<li>on PPro, PII and PIII, instruction fetch may be delayed after a jump
+(chapter <a href="#15">15</a>), and
+retirement may be slightly less effective for taken jumps then for other uops
+(chapter <a href="#18">18</a>).
+</ul>
+<p>
+Calls and returns can be avoided by replacing small procedures with inline macros.
+And in many cases it is possible to reduce the number of jumps by restructuring
+your code. For example, a jump to a jump should be replaced by a jump to the final
+target. In some cases this is even possible with conditional jumps if the condition
+is the same or is known. A jump to a return can be replaced by a return. If you want
+to eliminate a return to a return, then you should not manipulate the stack pointer
+because that would interfere with the prediction mechanism of the return stack buffer.
+Instead, you can replace the preceding call with a jump. For example
+<kbd>CALL PRO1 / RET</kbd> can be replaced by <kbd>JMP PRO1</kbd> if
+<kbd>PRO1</kbd> ends with the same kind of <kbd>RET</kbd>.
+<p>
+You may also eliminate a jump by dublicating the code jumped to. This can be
+useful if you have a two-way branch inside a loop or before a return. Example:
+<pre>A: CMP [EAX+4*EDX],ECX
+ JE B
+ CALL X
+ JMP C
+B: CALL Y
+C: INC EDX
+ JNZ A
+ MOV ESP, EBP
+ POP EBP
+ RET</pre><p>
+The jump to <kbd>C</kbd> may be eliminated by dublicating the loop epilog:
+<pre>A: CMP [EAX+4*EDX],ECX
+ JE B
+ CALL X
+ INC EDX
+ JNZ A
+ JMP D
+B: CALL Y
+C: INC EDX
+ JNZ A
+D: MOV ESP, EBP
+ POP EBP
+ RET</pre><p>
+The most often executed branch should come first here. The jump to <kbd>D</kbd>
+is outside the loop and therefore less critical. If this jump is executed so often
+that it needs optimizing too, then replace it with the three instructions following
+<kbd>D</kbd>.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="22_4">22.4. Avoiding conditional jumps by using flags (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+The most important jumps to eliminate are conditional jumps, especially if
+they are poorly predictable. Sometimes it is possible to obtain the same effect
+as a branch by ingenious manipulation of bits and flags. For example you may
+calculate the absolute value of a signed number
+without branching:
+<pre> CDQ
+ XOR EAX,EDX
+ SUB EAX,EDX</pre><p>
+(On PPlain and PMMX, use <kbd>MOV EDX,EAX / SAR EDX,31</kbd> instead of <kbd>CDQ</kbd>).
+<p>
+The carry flag is particularly useful for this kind of tricks:<br>
+Setting carry if a value is zero: <kbd>CMP [VALUE],1</kbd><br>
+Setting carry if a value is not zero: <kbd>XOR EAX,EAX / CMP EAX,[VALUE]</kbd><br>
+Incrementing a counter if carry: <kbd>ADC EAX,0</kbd><br>
+Setting a bit for each time the carry is set: <kbd>RCL EAX,1</kbd><br>
+Generating a bit mask if carry is set: <kbd>SBB EAX,EAX</kbd><br>
+Setting a bit on an arbitrary condition: <kbd>SETcond AL</kbd><br>
+Setting all bits on an arbitrary condition: <kbd>XOR EAX,EAX / SETNcond AL / DEC EAX</kbd><br>
+(remember to reverse the condition in the last example)
+<p>
+The following example finds the minimum of two unsigned numbers: if (b < a) a = b;
+<pre> SUB EBX,EAX
+ SBB ECX,ECX
+ AND ECX,EBX
+ ADD EAX,ECX</pre><p>
+The next example chooses between two numbers: if (a != 0) a = b; else a = c;
+<pre> CMP EAX,1
+ SBB EAX,EAX
+ XOR ECX,EBX
+ AND EAX,ECX
+ XOR EAX,EBX</pre><p>
+Whether or not such tricks are worth the extra code depends on how predictable a
+conditional jump would be, whether the extra pairing or scheduling opportunities of the branch-free code
+can be utilized, and whether there are other jumps following immediately after which could
+suffer the penalties of consecutive jumps.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="22_5">22.5. Replacing conditional jumps by conditional moves (PPro, PII and PIII)</a></h3><p>
+The PPro, PII and PIII processors have conditional move instructions intended specifically for
+avoiding branches because branch misprediction is very time-consuming on these
+processors. There are conditional move instructions for both integer and floating point
+registers. For code that will run only on these processors you may replace poorly
+predictable branches with conditional moves whenever possible. If you want your code to
+run on all processors then you may make two versions of the most critical parts of the code,
+one for processors that support conditional move instructions and one for those that don't
+(see chapter <a href="#27_10">27.10</a> for how to detect if conditional moves are supported).
+<p>
+The misprediction penalty for a branch may be so high that it is advantageous to replace it
+with conditional moves even when it costs several extra instructions. But a conditional move
+instruction has the disadvantage that it makes dependency chains longer. The conditional move
+waits for both register operands to be ready even
+though only one of them is needed. A conditional move is waiting for three operands to be
+ready: the condition flag and the two move operands. You have to consider if any of these
+three operands are likely to be delayed by dependency chains or cache misses. If the
+condition flag is available long before the move operands then you may as well use a
+branch, because a possible branch misprediction could be resolved while waiting for the
+move operands. In situations where you have to wait long for a move operand that may not
+be needed after all, the branch will be faster than the conditional move despite a possible
+misprediction penalty. The opposite situation is when the condition flag is delayed while
+both move operands are available early. In this situation the conditional move is preferred
+over the branch if misprediction is likely.
+
+<p>
+<h2><a name="23">23</a>. Reducing code size (all processors)</h2><p>
+As explained in chapter <a href="#7">7</a>, the code cache is 8 or 16 kb. If you have problems keeping the
+critical parts of your code within the code cache, then you may consider reducing the size of
+your code.
+<p>
+ 32 bit code is usually bigger than 16 bit code because addresses and data constants take 4
+bytes in 32 bit code and only 2 bytes in 16 bit code. However, 16 bit code has other
+penalties such as prefixes and problems with accessing adjacent words simultaneously
+(see chapter 10.2 <a href="#imperfectpush">above</a>). Some other methods for reducing the size or your code are discussed
+below.
+<p>
+Both jump addresses, data addresses, and data constants take less space if they can be
+expressed as a sign-extended byte, i.e. if they are within the interval from -128 to +127.
+<p>
+For jump addresses this means that short jumps take two bytes of code, whereas jumps
+beyond 127 bytes take 5 bytes if unconditional and 6 bytes if conditional.
+<p>
+Likewise, data addresses take less space if they can be expressed as a pointer and a
+displacement between -128 and +127.
+Example:<br>
+<kbd> MOV EBX,DS:[100000] / ADD EBX,DS:[100004] ; 12 bytes</kbd><br>
+Reduce to:<br>
+<kbd> MOV EAX,100000 / MOV EBX,[EAX] / ADD EBX,[EAX+4] ; 10 bytes</kbd>
+<p>
+The advantage of using a pointer obviously increases if you use it many times. Storing data
+on the stack and using <kbd>EBP</kbd> or <kbd>ESP</kbd> as pointer will thus make your code smaller than if you
+use static memory locations and absolute addresses, provided of course that your data are
+within +/-127 bytes of the pointer. Using <kbd>PUSH</kbd> and <kbd>POP</kbd> to write and read temporary data is
+even shorter.
+<p>
+ Data constants may also take less space if they are between -128 and +127. Most
+instructions with immediate operands have a short form where the operand is a
+sign-extended single byte. Examples:
+<pre> PUSH 200 ; 5 bytes
+ PUSH 100 ; 2 bytes
+
+ ADD EBX,128 ; 6 bytes
+ SUB EBX,-128 ; 3 bytes</pre><p>
+
+ The most important instruction with an immediate operand which doesn't have such a short
+form is <kbd>MOV</kbd>.<br>
+Examples:
+<pre> MOV EAX, 0 ; 5 bytes</pre><p>
+ May be changed to:<br>
+<pre> XOR EAX,EAX ; 2 bytes</pre><p>
+And
+<pre> MOV EAX, 1 ; 5 bytes</pre><p>
+ May be changed to:
+<pre> XOR EAX,EAX / INC EAX ; 3 bytes</pre><p>
+or:
+<pre> PUSH 1 / POP EAX ; 3 bytes</pre><p>
+And
+<pre> MOV EAX, -1 ; 5 bytes</pre><p>
+May be changed to:
+<pre> OR EAX, -1 ; 3 bytes</pre>
+<p>
+If the same address or constant is used more than once then you may load it
+into a register. A <kbd>MOV</kbd>
+with a 4-byte immediate operand may sometimes be replaced by an arithmetic
+instruction if the value of the register before the <kbd>MOV</kbd> is known. Example:
+<pre> MOV [mem1],200 ; 10 bytes
+ MOV [mem2],200 ; 10 bytes
+ MOV [mem3],201 ; 10 bytes
+ MOV EAX,100 ; 5 bytes
+ MOV EBX,150 ; 5 bytes</pre><p>
+Assuming that <kbd>mem1</kbd> and <kbd>mem3</kbd> are both within -128/+127
+bytes of <kbd>mem2</kbd>, this may be changed to:
+<pre> MOV EBX, OFFSET mem2 ; 5 bytes
+ MOV EAX,200 ; 5 bytes
+ MOV [EBX+mem1-mem2],EAX ; 3 bytes
+ MOV [EBX],EAX ; 2 bytes
+ INC EAX ; 1 byte
+ MOV [EBX+mem3-mem2],EAX ; 3 bytes
+ SUB EAX,101 ; 3 bytes
+ LEA EBX,[EAX+50] ; 3 bytes</pre><p>
+Be aware of the AGI stall in the <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction (for PPlain and PMMX).
+<p>
+You may also consider that different instructions have different lengths. The following
+instructions take only one byte and are therefore very attractive:
+<kbd>PUSH reg</kbd>, <kbd>POP reg, INC reg32, DEC reg32</kbd>.<br>
+<kbd>INC</kbd> and <kbd>DEC</kbd> with 8 bit registers take 2 bytes, so
+<kbd>INC EAX</kbd> is shorter than <kbd>INC AL</kbd>.
+<p>
+<kbd>XCHG EAX,reg</kbd> is also a single-byte instruction and thus takes less space
+than <kbd>MOV EAX,reg</kbd>, but it is slower.
+<p>
+Some instructions take one byte less when they use the accumulator than when they use
+any other register. <br>
+Examples:
+
+<pre> MOV EAX,DS:[100000] is smaller than MOV EBX,DS:[100000]
+ ADD EAX,1000 is smaller than ADD EBX,1000</pre><p>
+
+ Instructions with pointers take one byte less when they have only a base pointer
+ (not <kbd>ESP</kbd>)
+and a displacement than when they have a scaled index register, or both base pointer and
+index register, or <kbd>ESP</kbd> as base pointer. <br>
+Examples:
+<pre> MOV EAX,[array][EBX] is smaller than MOV EAX,[array][EBX*4]
+ MOV EAX,[EBP+12] is smaller than MOV EAX,[ESP+12]</pre><p>
+ Instructions with <kbd>EBP</kbd> as base pointer and no displacement and no index take one byte more
+than with other registers:
+<pre> MOV EAX,[EBX] is smaller than MOV EAX,[EBP], but
+ MOV EAX,[EBX+4] is same size as MOV EAX,[EBP+4].</pre><p>
+ Instructions with a scaled index pointer and no base pointer must have a four byte
+displacement, even when it is 0:
+<pre> LEA EAX,[EBX+EBX] is shorter than LEA EAX,[2*EBX].</pre>
+<p>
+<h2><a name="24">24</a>. Scheduling floating point code (PPlain and PMMX)</h2><p>
+Floating point instructions cannot pair the way integer instructions can, except for one
+special case, defined by the following rules:
+<ul>
+<li>the first instruction (executing in the U-pipe) must be <kbd>FLD, FADD, FSUB, FMUL,
+FDIV, FCOM, FCHS,</kbd> or <kbd>FABS</kbd>.
+<li>the second instruction (in V-pipe) must be <kbd>FXCH</kbd>
+<li>the instruction following the <kbd>FXCH</kbd> must be a floating point instruction, otherwise the
+<kbd>FXCH</kbd> will pair imperfectly and take an extra clock cycle.
+</ul><p>
+This special pairing is important, as will be explained shortly.
+<p>
+While floating point instructions in general cannot be paired, many can be pipelined, i.e. one
+instruction can begin before the previous instruction has finished. Example:
+<pre> FADD ST(1),ST(0) ; clock cycle 1-3
+ FADD ST(2),ST(0) ; clock cycle 2-4
+ FADD ST(3),ST(0) ; clock cycle 3-5
+ FADD ST(4),ST(0) ; clock cycle 4-6</pre><p>
+Obviously, two instructions cannot overlap if the second instruction needs the result of the
+first. Since almost all floating point instructions involve the top of stack register,
+<kbd>ST(0)</kbd>, there are seemingly not very many possibilities for making an instruction independent of the
+result of previous instructions. The solution to this problem is register renaming. The <kbd>FXCH</kbd>
+instruction does not in reality swap the contents of two registers, it only swaps their names.
+Instructions which push or pop the register stack also work by renaming. Floating point
+register renaming has been highly optimized on the Pentiums so that a register may be
+renamed while in use. Register renaming never causes stalls - it is even possible to rename
+a register more than once in the same clock cycle, as for example when you pair <kbd>FLD</kbd> or
+<kbd>FCOMPP</kbd> with <kbd>FXCH</kbd>.
+<p>
+By the proper use of <kbd>FXCH</kbd> instructions you may obtain a lot of overlapping in your floating
+point code. Example:
+<pre> FLD [a1] ; clock cycle 1
+ FADD [a2] ; clock cycle 2-4
+ FLD [b1] ; clock cycle 3
+ FADD [b2] ; clock cycle 4-6
+ FLD [c1] ; clock cycle 5
+ FADD [c2] ; clock cycle 6-8
+ FXCH ST(2) ; clock cycle 6
+ FADD [a3] ; clock cycle 7-9
+ FXCH ST(1) ; clock cycle 7
+ FADD [b3] ; clock cycle 8-10
+ FXCH ST(2) ; clock cycle 8
+ FADD [c3] ; clock cycle 9-11
+ FXCH ST(1) ; clock cycle 9
+ FADD [a4] ; clock cycle 10-12
+ FXCH ST(2) ; clock cycle 10
+ FADD [b4] ; clock cycle 11-13
+ FXCH ST(1) ; clock cycle 11
+ FADD [c4] ; clock cycle 12-14
+ FXCH ST(2) ; clock cycle 12</pre><p>
+In the above example we are interleaving three independent threads. Each <kbd>FADD</kbd> takes 3
+clock cycles, and we can start a new <kbd>FADD</kbd> in each clock cycle. When we have started an
+<kbd>FADD</kbd> in the 'a' thread we have time to start two new <kbd>FADD</kbd>
+instructions in the '<kbd>b</kbd>' and '<kbd>c</kbd>'
+threads before returning to the '<kbd>a</kbd>' thread, so every third
+<kbd>FADD</kbd> belongs to the same thread.
+We are using <kbd>FXCH</kbd> instructions every time to get the register that belongs to the desired
+thread into <kbd>ST(0)</kbd>. As you can see in the example above, this generates a regular pattern,
+but note well that the <kbd>FXCH</kbd> instructions repeat with a period of two while the threads have a
+period of three. This can be quite confusing, so you have to 'play computer' in order to know
+which registers are where.
+<p>
+All versions of the instructions <kbd>FADD, FSUB, FMUL,</kbd> and
+<kbd>FILD</kbd> take 3 clock cycles and are
+able to overlap, so that these instructions may be scheduled using the method described
+above. Using a memory operand does not take more time than a register operand if the
+memory operand is in the level 1 cache and properly aligned.
+<p>
+By now you must be used to rules having exceptions, and the overlapping rule is no
+exception: You cannot start an <kbd>FMUL</kbd> instruction one clock cycle
+after another <kbd>FMUL</kbd>
+instruction, because the <kbd>FMUL</kbd> circuitry is not perfectly pipelined.
+It is recommended that you
+put another instruction in between two <kbd>FMUL</kbd>'s. Example:
+<pre> FLD [a1] ; clock cycle 1
+ FLD [b1] ; clock cycle 2
+ FLD [c1] ; clock cycle 3
+ FXCH ST(2) ; clock cycle 3
+ FMUL [a2] ; clock cycle 4-6
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 4
+ FMUL [b2] ; clock cycle 5-7 (stall)
+ FXCH ST(2) ; clock cycle 5
+ FMUL [c2] ; clock cycle 7-9 (stall)
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 7
+ FSTP [a3] ; clock cycle 8-9
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 10 (unpaired)
+ FSTP [b3] ; clock cycle 11-12
+ FSTP [c3] ; clock cycle 13-14</pre><p>
+Here you have a stall before <kbd>FMUL [b2]</kbd> and before <kbd>FMUL [c2]</kbd>
+because another <kbd>FMUL</kbd>
+started in the preceding clock cycle. You can improve this code by putting
+<kbd>FLD</kbd> instructions in between the <kbd>FMUL</kbd>'s:
+<pre> FLD [a1] ; clock cycle 1
+ FMUL [a2] ; clock cycle 2-4
+ FLD [b1] ; clock cycle 3
+ FMUL [b2] ; clock cycle 4-6
+ FLD [c1] ; clock cycle 5
+ FMUL [c2] ; clock cycle 6-8
+ FXCH ST(2) ; clock cycle 6
+ FSTP [a3] ; clock cycle 7-8
+ FSTP [b3] ; clock cycle 9-10
+ FSTP [c3] ; clock cycle 11-12</pre><p>
+In other cases you may put <kbd>FADD, FSUB</kbd>, or anything else in
+between <kbd>FMUL</kbd>'s to avoid the stalls.
+<p>
+Overlapping floating point instructions requires of course that you have some independent
+threads that you can interleave. If you have only one big formula to execute, then you may
+compute parts of the formula in parallel to achieve overlapping. If, for example, you want to
+add six numbers, then you may split the operations into two threads with three numbers in
+each, and add the two threads in the end:
+
+<pre> FLD [a] ; clock cycle 1
+ FADD [b] ; clock cycle 2-4
+ FLD [c] ; clock cycle 3
+ FADD [d] ; clock cycle 4-6
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 4
+ FADD [e] ; clock cycle 5-7
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 5
+ FADD [f] ; clock cycle 7-9 (stall)
+ FADD ; clock cycle 10-12 (stall)</pre><p>
+
+Here we have a one clock stall before <kbd>FADD [f]</kbd> because it is waiting
+for the result of <kbd>FADD [d]</kbd> and a two clock stall before the last
+<kbd>FADD</kbd> because it is waiting for the result of
+<kbd>FADD [f]</kbd>. The latter stall can be hidden by filling in some integer
+instructions, but the first stall can not because an integer instruction at
+this place would make the <kbd>FXCH</kbd> pair imperfectly.
+<p>
+The first stall can be avoided by having three threads rather than two, but
+that would cost an extra <kbd>FLD</kbd> so we do not save anything by having
+three threads rather than two unless there are at least eight numbers to add.
+<p>
+Not all floating point instructions can overlap. And some floating point
+instructions can overlap more subsequent integer instructions than subsequent
+floating point instructions. The <kbd>FDIV</kbd> instruction, for example,
+takes 39 clock cycles. All but the first clock cycle can
+overlap with integer instructions, but only the last two clock cycles can
+overlap with floating point instructions. Example:
+<pre> FDIV ; clock cycle 1-39 (U-pipe)
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 1-2 (V-pipe, imperfect pairing)
+ SHR EAX,1 ; clock cycle 3 (U-pipe)
+ INC EBX ; clock cycle 3 (V-pipe)
+ CMC ; clock cycle 4-5 (non-pairable)
+ FADD [x] ; clock cycle 38-40 (U-pipe, waiting while FPU busy)
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 38 (V-pipe)
+ FMUL [y] ; clock cycle 40-42 (U-pipe, waiting for result of FDIV)</pre><p>
+The first <kbd>FXCH</kbd> pairs with the <kbd>FDIV</kbd>, but takes an extra
+clock cycle because it is not followed by a floating point instruction.
+The <kbd>SHR / INC</kbd> pair starts before the <kbd>FDIV</kbd> is finished, but
+has to wait for the <kbd>FXCH</kbd> to finish. The <kbd>FADD</kbd> has to wait
+till clock 38 because new floating point instructions can only execute during
+the last two clock cycles of the <kbd>FDIV</kbd>. The second <kbd>FXCH</kbd>
+pairs with the <kbd>FADD</kbd>. The <kbd>FMUL</kbd> has to wait for the <kbd>FDIV</kbd>
+to finish because it uses the result of the division.
+<p>
+If you have nothing else to put in after a floating point instruction with a
+large integer overlap, such as <kbd>FDIV</kbd> or <kbd>FSQRT</kbd>, then you
+may put in a dummy read from an address which you expect to need later in
+the program to make sure it is in the level one cache. Example:
+<pre> FDIV QWORD PTR [EBX]
+ CMP [ESI],ESI
+ FMUL QWORD PTR [ESI]</pre><p>
+Here we use the integer overlap to pre-load the value at <kbd>[ESI]</kbd> into
+the cache while the <kbd>FDIV</kbd> is being computed (we don't care what
+the result of the <kbd>CMP</kbd> is).
+<p>
+Chapter <a href="#28">28</a> gives a complete listing of floating point instructions, and
+what they can pair or overlap with.
+<p>
+There is no penalty for using a memory operand on floating point instuctions
+because the arithmetic unit is one step later in the pipeline than the read
+unit. The tradeoff of this comes when you store floating point data to memory.
+The <kbd>FST</kbd> or <kbd>FSTP</kbd> instruction with a memory
+operand takes two clock cycles in the execution stage, but it needs the data one clock
+earlier so you will get a one clock stall if the value to store is not ready one clock cycle in
+advance. This is analogous to an AGI stall. Example:
+<pre> FLD [a1] ; clock cycle 1
+ FADD [a2] ; clock cycle 2-4
+ FLD [b1] ; clock cycle 3
+ FADD [b2] ; clock cycle 4-6
+ FXCH ; clock cycle 4
+ FSTP [a3] ; clock cycle 6-7
+ FSTP [b3] ; clock cycle 8-9</pre><p>
+
+The <kbd>FSTP [a3]</kbd> stalls for one clock cycle because the result of
+<kbd>FADD [a2]</kbd> is not ready
+in the preceding clock cycle. In many cases you cannot hide this type of stall without
+scheduling your floating point code into four threads or putting some integer instructions in
+between. The two clock cycles in the execution stage of the <kbd>FST(P)</kbd> instruction cannot pair
+or overlap with any subsequent instructions.
+<p>
+Instructions with integer operands such as <kbd>FIADD, FISUB, FIMUL, FIDIV, FICOM</kbd> may
+be split up into simpler operations in order to improve overlapping. Example:
+<pre> FILD [a] ; clock cycle 1-3
+ FIMUL [b] ; clock cycle 4-9</pre><p>
+Split up into:
+<pre> FILD [a] ; clock cycle 1-3
+ FILD [b] ; clock cycle 2-4
+ FMUL ; clock cycle 5-7</pre><p>
+In this example, you save two clocks by overlapping the two FILD instructions.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="25">25</a>. Loop optimization (all processors)</h2><p>
+When analyzing a program you often find that most of the time consumption lies in the
+innermost loop. The way to improve the speed is to carefully optimize the most
+time-consuming loop using assembly language. The rest of the program may be left in high-level
+language.
+<p>
+In all the following examples it is assumed that all data are in the level 1 cache. If the speed
+is limited by cache misses then there is no reason to optimize the instructions. Rather, you
+should concentrate on organizing your data in a way that minimizes cache misses (see
+chapter <a href="#7">7</a>).
+<p>
+<h3><a name="25_1">25.1. Loops in PPlain and PMMX</a></h3><p>
+A loop generally contains a counter controlling how many times to iterate, and often array
+access reading or writing one array element for each iteration. I have chosen as example a
+procedure which reads integers from an array, changes the sign of each integer, and stores
+the results in another array.
+<p>
+A C language code for this procedure would be:
+<pre>void ChangeSign (int * A, int * B, int N) {
+ int i;
+ for (i=0; i<N; i++) B[i] = -A[i];}</pre>
+<p>
+Translating to assembly, we might write the procedure like this:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.1:</h4><p>
+<pre>_ChangeSign PROC NEAR
+ PUSH ESI
+ PUSH EDI
+A EQU DWORD PTR [ESP+12]
+B EQU DWORD PTR [ESP+16]
+N EQU DWORD PTR [ESP+20]
+ MOV ECX, [N]
+ JECXZ L2
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ CLD
+L1: LODSD
+ NEG EAX
+ STOSD
+ LOOP L1
+L2: POP EDI
+ POP ESI
+ RET ; (no extra pop if _cdecl calling convention)
+_ChangeSign ENDP</pre><p>
+This looks like a nice solution, but it is not optimal because it uses slow non-pairable
+instructions. It takes 11 clock cycles per iteration if all data are in the level one cache.
+<p>
+<h4>Using pairable instructions only (PPlain and PMMX)</h4>
+<h4>Example 1.2:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ECX, [N]
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ TEST ECX, ECX
+ JZ SHORT L2
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+L1: MOV EAX, [ESI] ; u
+ XOR EBX, EBX ; v (pairs)
+ ADD ESI, 4 ; u
+ SUB EBX, EAX ; v (pairs)
+ MOV [EDI], EBX ; u
+ ADD EDI, 4 ; v (pairs)
+ DEC ECX ; u
+ JNZ L1 ; v (pairs)
+L2:</pre><p>
+Here we have used pairable instructions only, and scheduled the instructions so that
+everything pairs. It now takes only 4 clock cycles per iteration. We could have obtained the
+same speed without splitting the NEG instruction, but the other unpairable instructions
+should be split up.
+<p>
+<h4>Using the same register for counter and index</h4>
+<h4>Example 1.3:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ MOV ECX, [N]
+ XOR EDX, EDX
+ TEST ECX, ECX
+ JZ SHORT L2
+L1: MOV EAX, [ESI+4*EDX] ; u
+ NEG EAX ; u
+ MOV [EDI+4*EDX], EAX ; u
+ INC EDX ; v (pairs)
+ CMP EDX, ECX ; u
+ JB L1 ; v (pairs)
+L2:</pre><p>
+Using the same register for counter and index gives us fewer instructions in the body of the
+loop, but it still takes 4 clocks because we have two unpaired instructions.
+<p>
+<h4>Letting the counter end at zero (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+We want to get rid of the <kbd>CMP</kbd> instruction in example 1.3 by letting the counter end at zero
+and use the zero flag for detecting when we are finished as we did in example 1.2. One way
+to do this would be to execute the loop backwards taking the last array elements first.
+However, data caches are optimized for accessing data forwards, not backwards, so if
+cache misses are likely, then you should rather start the counter at -N and count through
+negative values up to zero. The base registers should then point to the end of the arrays
+rather than the beginning:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.4:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EAX, [N]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array A
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; -N
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array B
+ JZ SHORT L2
+L1: MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX] ; u
+ NEG EAX ; u
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX], EAX ; u
+ INC ECX ; v (pairs)
+ JNZ L1 ; u
+L2:</pre><p>
+We are now down at five instructions in the loop body but it still takes 4 clocks because of
+poor pairing. (If the addresses and sizes of the arrays are constants we may save two
+registers by substituting <kbd>A+SIZE A</kbd> for <kbd>ESI</kbd>
+and <kbd>B+SIZE B</kbd> for <kbd>EDI</kbd>). Now let's see how we
+can improve pairing.
+<p>
+<h4>Pairing calculations with loop overhead (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+We may want to improve pairing by intermingling calculations with the loop control
+instructions. If we want to put something in between <kbd>INC ECX</kbd>
+and <kbd>JNZ L1</kbd>, it has to be
+something that doesn't affect the zero flag. The <kbd>MOV [EDI+4*ECX],EBX</kbd>
+instruction after <kbd>INC ECX</kbd> would generate an AGI delay, so we have
+to be more ingenious:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.5:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV EAX, [N]
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ SHL EAX, 2 ; 4 * N
+ JZ SHORT L3
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; - 4 * N
+ ADD ESI, EAX ; point to end of array A
+ ADD EDI, EAX ; point to end of array B
+ JMP SHORT L2
+L1: MOV [EDI+ECX-4], EAX ; u
+L2: MOV EAX, [ESI+ECX] ; v (pairs)
+ XOR EAX, -1 ; u
+ ADD ECX, 4 ; v (pairs)
+ INC EAX ; u
+ JNC L1 ; v (pairs)
+ MOV [EDI+ECX-4], EAX
+L3:</pre><p>
+I have used a different way to calculate the negative of <kbd>EAX</kbd> here:
+inverting all bits and adding one. The reason why I am using this method is
+that I can use a dirty trick with the
+<kbd>INC</kbd> instruction: <kbd>INC</kbd> doesn't change the carry flag,
+whereas <kbd>ADD</kbd> does. I am using <kbd>ADD</kbd>
+rather than <kbd>INC</kbd> to increment my loop counter and testing the carry
+flag rather than the zero
+flag. It is then possible to put the <kbd>INC EAX</kbd> in between without
+affecting the carry flag. You
+may think that we could have used <kbd>LEA EAX,[EAX+1]</kbd> here instead of
+<kbd>INC EAX</kbd>, at least
+that doesn't change any flags, but the <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction would have
+an AGI stall so that's not
+the best solution. Note that the trick with the <kbd>INC</kbd> instruction
+not changing the carry flag is useful only on PPlain and PMMX, but will
+cause a partial flags stall on PPro, PII and PIII.
+<p>
+I have obtained perfect pairing here and the loop now takes only 3 clock cycles.
+Whether you want to increment the loop counter by 1 (as in example 1.4) or by 4
+(as in example 1.5) is a matter of taste, it makes no difference in loop timing.
+<p>
+<h4>Overlapping the end of one operation with the beginning of the next (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+The method used in example 1.5 is not very generally applicable so we may look for other
+methods of improving pairing opportunities. One way is to reorganize the loop so that the
+end of one operation overlaps with the beginning of the next. I will call this convoluting the
+loop. A convoluted loop has an unfinished operation at the end of each loop iteration which
+will be finished in the next run. Actually, example 1.5 did pair the last <kbd>MOV</kbd> of one iteration
+with the first <kbd>MOV</kbd> of the next, but we want to explore this method further:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.6:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EAX, [N]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array A
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; -N
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array B
+ JZ SHORT L3
+ XOR EBX, EBX
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX]
+ INC ECX
+ JZ SHORT L2
+L1: SUB EBX, EAX ; u
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX] ; v (pairs)
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX-4], EBX ; u
+ INC ECX ; v (pairs)
+ MOV EBX, 0 ; u
+ JNZ L1 ; v (pairs)
+L2: SUB EBX, EAX
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX-4], EBX
+L3:</pre><p>
+
+Here we begin reading the second value before we have stored the first, and
+this of course improves pairing opportunities. The <kbd>MOV EBX,0</kbd>
+instruction has been put in between <kbd>INC ECX</kbd> and <kbd>JNZ L1</kbd>
+not to improve pairing but to avoid AGI stall.
+<p>
+<h4>Rolling out a loop (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+The most generally applicable way to improve pairing opportunities is to do two operations
+for each run and do half as many runs. This is called rolling out a loop:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.7:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EAX, [N]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array A
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; -N
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array B
+ JZ SHORT L2
+ TEST AL,1 ; test if N is odd
+ JZ SHORT L1
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX] ; N is odd. do the odd one
+ NEG EAX
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX], EAX
+ INC ECX ; make counter even
+ JZ SHORT L2 ; N = 1
+L1: MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX] ; u
+ MOV EBX, [ESI+4*ECX+4] ; v (pairs)
+ NEG EAX ; u
+ NEG EBX ; u
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX], EAX ; u
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX+4], EBX ; v (pairs)
+ ADD ECX, 2 ; u
+ JNZ L1 ; v (pairs)
+L2:</pre>
+<p>
+Now we are doing two operations in parallel which gives the best pairing opportunities. We
+have to test if <kbd>N</kbd> is odd and if so do one operation outside the loop because the loop can
+only do an even number of operations.
+<p>
+The loop has an AGI stall at the first <kbd>MOV</kbd> instruction because
+<kbd>ECX</kbd> has been incremented in
+the preceding clock cycle. The loop therefore takes 6 clock cycles for two operations.
+<p>
+<h4>Reorganizing a loop to remove AGI stall (PPlain and PMMX)</h4>
+<h4>Example 1.8:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EAX, [N]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array A
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; -N
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+4*EAX] ; point to end of array B
+ JZ SHORT L3
+ TEST AL,1 ; test if N is odd
+ JZ SHORT L2
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX] ; N is odd. do the odd one
+ NEG EAX ; no pairing opportunity
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX-4], EAX
+ INC ECX ; make counter even
+ JNZ SHORT L2
+ NOP ; add NOP's if JNZ L2 not predictable
+ NOP
+ JMP SHORT L3 ; N = 1
+L1: NEG EAX ; u
+ NEG EBX ; u
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX-8], EAX ; u
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX-4], EBX ; v (pairs)
+L2: MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX] ; u
+ MOV EBX, [ESI+4*ECX+4] ; v (pairs)
+ ADD ECX, 2 ; u
+ JNZ L1 ; v (pairs)
+ NEG EAX
+ NEG EBX
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX-8], EAX
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX-4], EBX
+L3:</pre>
+<p>
+The trick is to find a pair of instructions that do not use the loop counter as index and
+reorganize the loop so that the counter is incremented in the preceding clock cycle. We are
+now down at 5 clock cycles for two operations which is close to the best possible.
+<p>
+If data caching is critical, then you may improve the speed further by
+interleaving the <kbd>A</kbd> and <kbd>B</kbd> arrays into one structured array
+so that each <kbd>B[i]</kbd> comes immediately after the
+corresponding <kbd>A[i]</kbd>. If the structured array is aligned by at least
+8 then <kbd>B[i]</kbd> will always be
+in the same cache line as <kbd>A[i]</kbd>, so you will never have a cache
+miss when writing <kbd>B[i]</kbd>.
+This may of course have a tradeoff in other parts of the program so you
+have to weigh the costs against the benefits.
+<p>
+<h4>Rolling out by more than 2 (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+You may think of doing more than two operations per iteration in order to reduce the loop
+overhead per operation. But since the loop overhead in most cases can be reduced to only
+one clock cycle per iteration, then rolling out the loop by 4 rather than by 2 would only save
+1/4 clock cycle per operation, which is hardly worth the effort. Only if the loop overhead
+cannot be reduced to one clock cycle and if N is very big, should you think of unrolling by 4.
+<p>
+The drawbacks of excessive loop unrolling are:
+<ol>
+<li>You need to calculate N MODULO R, where R is the unrolling factor, and do N
+MODULO R operations before or after the main loop in order to make the remaining
+number of operations divisible by R. This takes a lot of extra code and poorly predictable
+branches. And the loop body of course also becomes bigger.
+<li>A Piece of code usually takes much more time the first time it executes, and the penalty
+of first time execution is bigger the more code you have, especially if N is small.
+<li>Excessive code size makes the utilization of the code cache less effective.
+</ol>
+<p>
+<h4>Handling multiple 8 or 16 bit operands simultaneously in 32 bit registers (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+If you need to manipulate arrays of 8 or 16 bit operands, then there is a problem with
+unrolled loops because you may not be able to pair two memory access operations. For
+example <kbd>MOV AL,[ESI] / MOV BL,[ESI+1]</kbd> will not pair if the two operands are within
+the same dword of memory. But there may be a much smarter method, namely to handle
+four bytes at a time in the same 32 bit register.
+<p>
+The following example adds 2 to all elements of an array of bytes:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.9:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ESI, [A] ; address of byte array
+ MOV ECX, [N] ; number of elements in byte array
+ TEST ECX, ECX ; test if N is 0
+ JZ SHORT L2
+ MOV EAX, [ESI] ; read first four bytes
+L1: MOV EBX, EAX ; copy into EBX
+ AND EAX, 7F7F7F7FH ; get lower 7 bits of each byte in EAX
+ XOR EBX, EAX ; get the highest bit of each byte
+ ADD EAX, 02020202H ; add desired value to all four bytes
+ XOR EBX, EAX ; combine bits again
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+4] ; read next four bytes
+ MOV [ESI], EBX ; store result
+ ADD ESI, 4 ; increment pointer
+ SUB ECX, 4 ; decrement loop counter
+ JA L1 ; loop
+L2:</pre><p>
+This loop takes 5 clock cycles for every 4 bytes. The array should of course be aligned by
+4. If the number of elements in the array is not divisible by four, then you may padd it in the
+end with a few extra bytes to make the length divisible by four. This loop will always read
+past the end of the array, so you should make sure the array is not placed at the end of a
+segment to avoid a general protection error.
+<p>
+Note that I have masked out the highest bit of each byte to avoid a possible carry from
+each byte into the next when adding. I am using <kbd>XOR</kbd> rather than
+<kbd>ADD</kbd> when putting in the high bit again to avoid carry.
+<p>
+The <kbd>ADD ESI,4</kbd> instruction could have been avoided by using the loop counter as index
+as in example 1.4. However, this would give an odd number of instructions in the loop
+body, so there would be one unpaired instruction and the loop would still take 5 clocks.
+Making the branch instruction unpaired would save one clock after the last operation when
+the branch is mispredicted, but we would have to spend an extra clock cycle in the prolog
+code to setup a pointer to the end of the array and calculate -N, so the two methods will be
+exactly equally fast. The method presented here is the simplest and shortest.
+<p>
+The next example finds the length of a zero-terminated string by searching
+for the first byte of zero. It is faster than using <kbd>REP SCASB</kbd>:
+<p>
+<h4><a name="1-10">Example 1.10:</a></h4><p>
+<pre>STRLEN PROC NEAR
+ MOV EAX,[ESP+4] ; get pointer
+ MOV EDX,7
+ ADD EDX,EAX ; pointer+7 used in the end
+ PUSH EBX
+ MOV EBX,[EAX] ; read first 4 bytes
+ ADD EAX,4 ; increment pointer
+L1: LEA ECX,[EBX-01010101H] ; subtract 1 from each byte
+ XOR EBX,-1 ; invert all bytes
+ AND ECX,EBX ; and these two
+ MOV EBX,[EAX] ; read next 4 bytes
+ ADD EAX,4 ; increment pointer
+ AND ECX,80808080H ; test all sign bits
+ JZ L1 ; no zero bytes, continue loop
+ TEST ECX,00008080H ; test first two bytes
+ JNZ SHORT L2
+ SHR ECX,16 ; not in the first 2 bytes
+ ADD EAX,2
+L2: SHL CL,1 ; use carry flag to avoid a branch
+ POP EBX
+ SBB EAX,EDX ; compute length
+ RET
+STRLEN ENDP</pre><p>
+Again we have used the method of overlapping the end of one operation with the beginning
+of the next to improve pairing. I have not unrolled the loop because it is likely to repeat
+relatively few times. The string should of course be aligned by 4. The code will always read
+past the end of the string, so the string should not be placed at the end of a segment.
+<p>
+The loop body has an odd number of instructions so there is one unpaired. Making the
+branch instruction unpaired rather than one of the other instructions has the advantage that
+it saves 1 clock cycle when the branch is mispredicted.
+<p>
+The <kbd>TEST ECX,00008080H</kbd> instruction is non-pairable. You could use the pairable
+instruction <kbd>OR CH,CL</kbd> here instead, but then you would have to put
+in a <kbd>NOP</kbd> or something to avoid the penalties of consecutive branches.
+Another problem with <kbd>OR CH,CL</kbd> is that it
+would cause a partial register stall on a PPro, PII and PIII. So I have chosen to keep the
+unpairable <kbd>TEST</kbd> instruction.
+<p>
+Handling 4 bytes simultaneously can be quite difficult. The code uses a formula which
+generates a nonzero value for a byte if, and only if, the byte is zero. This makes it possible
+to test all four bytes in one operation. This algorithm involves the subtraction of 1 from all
+bytes (in the <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction). I have not masked out the highest bit of each byte before
+subtracting, as I did in the previous example, so the subtraction may generate a borrow to
+the next byte, but only if it is zero, and this is exactly the situation where we don't care what
+the next byte is, because we are searching forwards for the first zero. If we were searching
+backwards then we would have to re-read the dword after detecting a zero, and then test all
+four bytes to find the last zero, or use <kbd>BSWAP</kbd> to reverse the order of the bytes.
+<p>
+If you want to search for a byte value other than zero, then you may <kbd>XOR</kbd> all four bytes
+with the value you are searching for, and then use the method above to search for zero.
+<p>
+<h4>Loops with MMX operations (PMMX)</h4><p>
+Handling multiple operands in the same register is easier on the MMX processors because
+they have special instructions and special 64 bit registers for exactly this purpose.
+<p>
+Returning to the problem of adding two to all bytes in an array, we may take advantage of
+the MMX instructions:
+<h4>Example 1.11:</h4><p>
+<pre>.data
+ALIGN 8
+ADDENTS DQ 0202020202020202h ; specify byte to add eight times
+A DD ? ; address of byte array
+N DD ? ; number of iterations
+
+.code
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV ECX, [N]
+ MOVQ MM2, [ADDENTS]
+ JMP SHORT L2
+ ; top of loop
+L1: MOVQ [ESI-8], MM0 ; store result
+L2: MOVQ MM0, MM2 ; load addents
+ PADDB MM0, [ESI] ; add eight bytes in one operation
+ ADD ESI, 8
+ DEC ECX
+ JNZ L1
+ MOVQ [ESI-8], MM0 ; store last result
+ EMMS</pre><p>
+The store instruction is moved to after the loop control instructions in order to avoid a store stall.
+<p>
+This loop takes 4 clocks because the <kbd>PADDB</kbd> instruction doesn't pair
+with <kbd>ADD ESI,8</kbd>. (A MMX instruction with memory access cannot pair
+with a non-MMX instruction or with another MMX instruction with memory access).
+We could get rid of <kbd>ADD ESI,8</kbd> by using <kbd>ECX</kbd> as index,
+but that would give an AGI stall.
+<p>
+Since the loop overhead is considerable we might want to unroll the loop:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.12:</h4><p>
+<pre>.data
+ALIGN 8
+ADDENTS DQ 0202020202020202h ; specify byte to add eight
+times
+A DD ? ; address of byte array
+N DD ? ; number of iterations
+
+.code
+ MOVQ MM2, [ADDENTS]
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV ECX, [N]
+ MOVQ MM0, MM2
+ MOVQ MM1, MM2
+L3: PADDB MM0, [ESI]
+ PADDB MM1, [ESI+8]
+ MOVQ [ESI], MM0
+ MOVQ MM0, MM2
+ MOVQ [ESI+8], MM1
+ MOVQ MM1, MM2
+ ADD ESI, 16
+ DEC ECX
+ JNZ L3
+ EMMS</pre><p>
+This unrolled loop takes 6 clocks per iteration for adding 16 bytes.
+The <kbd>PADDB</kbd> instructions are not paired. The two threads are
+interleaved to avoid a store stall.
+<p>
+Using the MMX instructions has a high penalty if you are using floating point
+instructions shortly afterwards, so there may still be situations where you
+want to use 32 bit registers as in example 1.9.
+<p>
+<h4>Loops with floating point operations (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+The methods of optimizing floating point loops are basically the same as for integer loops,
+although the floating point instructions are overlapping rather than pairing.
+<p>
+Consider the C language code:
+<pre> int i, n; double * X; double * Y; double DA;
+ for (i=0; i<n; i++) Y[i] = Y[i] - DA * X[i];</pre><p>
+This piece of code (called DAXPY) has been studied extensively because it is the key to
+solving linear equations.
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.13:</h4><p>
+<pre>DSIZE = 8 ; data size
+ MOV EAX, [N] ; number of elements
+ MOV ESI, [X] ; pointer to X
+ MOV EDI, [Y] ; pointer to Y
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+DSIZE*EAX] ; point to end of X
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; -N
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+DSIZE*EAX] ; point to end of Y
+ JZ SHORT L3 ; test for N = 0
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX] ; DA * X[0]
+ JMP SHORT L2 ; jump into loop
+L1: FLD DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX] ; DA * X[i]
+ FXCH ; get old result
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX-DSIZE] ; store Y[i]
+L2: FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX] ; subtract from Y[i]
+ INC ECX ; increment index
+ JNZ L1 ; loop
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX-DSIZE] ; store last result
+L3:</pre><p>
+Here we are using the same methods as in example 1.6: Using the loop counter as index
+register and counting through negative values up to zero. The end of one operation
+overlaps with the beginning of the next.
+<p>
+The interleaving of floating point operations work perfectly here:
+The 2 clock stall between <kbd>FMUL</kbd> and <kbd>FSUBR</kbd> is filled
+with the <kbd>FSTP</kbd> of the previous result. The 3 clock stall between
+<kbd>FSUBR</kbd> and <kbd>FSTP</kbd> is filled with the loop overhead and the
+first two instructions of the next operation. An AGI stall has been avoided
+by reading the only parameter that doesn't depend on the index in the first clock cycle after the index has been incremented.
+<p>
+This solution takes 6 clock cycles per operation, which is better than the
+unrolled solution published by Intel!
+<p>
+<h4>Unrolling floating point loops (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+<a name="unrollby3">The DAXPY loop unrolled by 3 is quite complicated:</a>
+<h4>Example 1.14:</h4><p>
+<pre>DSIZE = 8 ; data size
+IF DSIZE EQ 4
+SHIFTCOUNT = 2
+ELSE
+SHIFTCOUNT = 3
+ENDIF
+
+ MOV EAX, [N] ; number of elements
+ MOV ECX, 3*DSIZE ; counter bias
+ SHL EAX, SHIFTCOUNT ; DSIZE*N
+ JZ L4 ; N = 0
+ MOV ESI, [X] ; pointer to X
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; (3-N)*DSIZE
+ MOV EDI, [Y] ; pointer to Y
+ SUB ESI, ECX ; end of pointer - bias
+ SUB EDI, ECX
+ TEST ECX, ECX
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+ECX] ; first X
+ JNS SHORT L2 ; less than 4 operations
+L1: ; main loop
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+ECX+DSIZE]
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FXCH
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX]
+ FXCH
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FXCH
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+DSIZE]
+ FXCH ST(2)
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX]
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+DSIZE]
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ ADD ECX, 3*DSIZE
+ JS L1 ; loop
+L2: FMUL DSIZE PTR [DA] ; finish leftover operation
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX]
+ SUB ECX, 2*DSIZE ; change pointer bias
+ JZ SHORT L3 ; finished
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA] ; start next operation
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ ADD ECX, 1*DSIZE
+ JZ SHORT L3 ; finished
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ ADD ECX, 1*DSIZE
+L3: FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+ECX+2*DSIZE]
+L4:</pre><p>
+The reason why I am showing you how to unroll a loop by 3 is not to recommend
+it, but to warn you how difficult it is! Be prepared to spend a considerable amount of time debugging
+and verifying your code when doing something like this. There are several problems to take
+care of: In most cases, you cannot remove all stalls from a floating point loop unrolled by
+less than 4 unless you convolute it (i.e. there are unfinished operations at the end of each
+run which are being finished in the next run). The last <kbd>FLD</kbd> in the main loop above is the
+beginning of the first operation in the next run. It would be tempting here to make a solution
+which reads past the end of the array and then discards the extra value in the end, as in
+example 1.9 and 1.10, but that is not recommended in floating point loops because the
+reading of the extra value might generate a denormal operand exception in case the
+memory position after the array doesn't contain a valid floating point number. To avoid this,
+we have to do at least one more operation after the main loop.
+<p>
+The number of operations to do outside an unrolled loop would normally be N MODULO R,
+where N is the number of operations, and R is the unrolling factor. But in the case of a
+convoluted loop, we have to do one more, i.e. (N-1) MODULO R + 1, for the
+abovementioned reason.
+<p>
+Normally, we would prefer to do the extra operations before the main loop, but here we have
+to do them afterwards for two reasons: One reason is to take care of the leftover operand
+from the convolution. The other reason is that calculating the number of extra operations
+requires a division if R is not a power of 2, and a division is time consuming. Doing the extra
+operations after the loop saves the division.
+<p>
+The next problem is to calculate how to bias the loop counter so that it will change sign at
+the right time, and adjust the base pointers so as to compensate for this bias. Finally, you
+have to make sure the leftover operand from the convolution is handled correctly for all
+values of N.
+<p>
+The epilog code doing 1-3 operations could have been implemented as a separate loop, but
+that would cost an extra branch misprediction, so the solution above is faster.
+<p>Now that I have scared you by demonstrating how difficult it is to unroll by 3, I will show you
+that it is much easier to unroll by 4:
+<p>
+<h4>Example 1.15:</h4><p>
+<pre>DSIZE = 8 ; data size
+ MOV EAX, [N] ; number of elements
+ MOV ESI, [X] ; pointer to X
+ MOV EDI, [Y] ; pointer to Y
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+DSIZE*EAX] ; point to end of X
+ SUB ECX, EAX ; -N
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+DSIZE*EAX] ; point to end of Y
+ TEST AL,1 ; test if N is odd
+ JZ SHORT L1
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA] ; do the odd operation
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ INC ECX ; adjust counter
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX-DSIZE]
+L1: TEST AL,2 ; test for possibly 2 more operations
+ JZ L2
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA] ; N MOD 4 = 2 or 3. Do two more
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX+DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ FXCH
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+DSIZE]
+ ADD ECX, 2 ; counter is now divisible by 4
+L2: TEST ECX, ECX
+ JZ L4 ; no more operations
+L3: ; main loop:
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA]
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ FMUL ST,ST(1)
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX+DSIZE]
+ FMUL ST,ST(2)
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ FMUL ST,ST(3)
+ FXCH ST(2)
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ FXCH ST(3)
+ FMUL DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+DSIZE]
+ FXCH ST(2)
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ FXCH
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ FXCH ST(3)
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX]
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+2*DSIZE]
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+DSIZE]
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX+3*DSIZE]
+ ADD ECX, 4 ; increment index by 4
+ JNZ L3 ; loop
+L4:</pre>
+<p>
+It is usually quite easy to find a stall-free solution when unrolling by 4, and there is no need
+for convolution. The number of extra operations to do outside the main loop is N MODULO
+4, which can be calculated easily without division, simply by testing the two lowest bits in N.
+The extra operations are done before the main loop rather than after, to make the handling
+of the loop counter simpler.
+<p>
+The tradeoff of loop unrolling is that the extra operations outside the loop are slower due to
+incomplete overlapping and possible branch mispredictions, and the first time penalty is
+higher because of increased code size.
+<p>
+As a general recommendation, I would say that if N is big or if convoluting the loop without
+unrolling cannot remove enough stalls, then you should unroll critical integer loops by 2 and
+floating point loops by 4.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="25_2">25.2 Loops in PPro, PII and PIII</a></h3><p>
+In the previous chapter (<a href="#25_1">25.1</a>) I explained how to use convolution and loop unrolling in order
+to improve pairing in PPlain and PMMX. On the PPro, PII and PIII there is no reason to do this
+thanks to the out-of-order execution mechanism. But there are other quite difficult problems
+to take care of, most importantly ifetch boundaries and register read stalls.
+<p>
+I have chosen the same example as in chapter <a href="#25_1">25.1</a>
+for the previous microprocessors: a procedure which reads integers from an
+array, changes the sign of each integer, and stores the results in another array.
+<p>
+A C language code for this procedure would be:
+<pre>void ChangeSign (int * A, int * B, int N) {
+ int i;
+ for (i=0; i<N; i++) B[i] = -A[i];}</pre><p>
+Translating to assembly, we might write the procedure like this:
+<h4>Example 2.1:</h4><p>
+<pre>_ChangeSign PROC NEAR
+ PUSH ESI
+ PUSH EDI
+A EQU DWORD PTR [ESP+12]
+B EQU DWORD PTR [ESP+16]
+N EQU DWORD PTR [ESP+20]
+
+ MOV ECX, [N]
+ JECXZ L2
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ CLD
+L1: LODSD
+ NEG EAX
+ STOSD
+ LOOP L1
+L2: POP EDI
+ POP ESI
+ RET
+_ChangeSign ENDP</pre><p>
+This looks like a nice solution, but it is not optimal because it uses the non-optimal
+instructions <kbd>LOOP, LODSD</kbd> and <kbd>STOSD</kbd> that generate many uops.
+It takes 6-7 clock cycles per iteration if all data are in the level one cache.
+Avoiding these instructions we get:
+<h4>Example 2.2:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ECX, [N]
+ JECXZ L2
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ALIGN 16
+L1: MOV EAX, [ESI] ; len=2, p2rESIwEAX
+ ADD ESI, 4 ; len=3, p01rwESIwF
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI], EAX ; len=2, p4rEAX, p3rEDI
+ ADD EDI, 4 ; len=3, p01rwEDIwF
+ DEC ECX ; len=1, p01rwECXwF
+ JNZ L1 ; len=2, p1rF
+L2:</pre><p>
+The comments are interpreted as follows: the <kbd>MOV EAX,[ESI]</kbd>
+instruction is 2 bytes long, it generates one uop for port 2 that reads
+<kbd>ESI</kbd> and writes to (renames) <kbd>EAX</kbd>. This
+information is needed for analyzing the possible bottlenecks.
+<p>
+Let's first analyze the instruction decoding (chapter <a href="#14">14</a>): One of the
+instructions generates 2 uops (<kbd>MOV [EDI],EAX</kbd>).
+This instruction must go into decoder D0. There are three
+decode groups in the loop so it can decode in 3 clock cycles.
+<p>
+Next, let's look at the instruction fetch (chapter <a href="#15">15</a>): If an ifetch boundary prevents the first
+three instructions from decoding together then there will be three decode groups in the last
+ifetch block so that the next iteration will have the ifetch block starting at the first instruction
+where we want it, and we will get a delay only in the first iteration. A worse situation would
+be a 16-byte boundary and an ifetch boundary in one of the last three instructions.
+According to the <a href="#ifetchtable">ifetch table</a>, this will generate a delay of 1 clock and cause the next
+iteration to have its first ifetch block aligned by 16, so that the problem continues through all
+iterations. The result is a fetch time of 4 clocks per iteration rather than 3. There are two
+ways to prevent this situation: the first method is to control where the ifetch blocks lie on the
+first iteration; the second method is to control where the 16-byte boundaries are. The latter
+method is the easiest. Since the entire loop has only 15 bytes of code you can avoid any
+16-byte boundary by aligning the loop entry by 16, as shown above. This will put the entire
+loop into a single ifetch block so that no further analysis of instruction fetching is needed.
+<p>
+The third problem to look at is register read stalls (chapter <a href="#16">16</a>). No register is read in this
+loop without being written to at least a few clock cycles before, so there can be no register
+read stalls.
+<p>
+The fourth analysis is execution (chapter <a href="#17">17</a>). Counting the uops for the different ports we
+get:<br>
+port 0 or 1: 4 uops<br>
+port 1 only: 1 uop<br>
+port 2: 1 uop<br>
+port 3: 1 uop<br>
+port 4: 1 uop<br>
+Assuming that the uops that can go to either port 0 or 1 are distributed optimally, the
+execution time will be 2.5 clocks per iteration.
+<p>
+The last analysis is retirement (chapter <a href="#18">18</a>). Since the number of uops in the loop is not
+divisible by 3, the retirement slots will not be used optimally when the jump has to retire in
+the first slot. The time needed for retirement is the number of uops divided by 3, and
+rounded up to nearest integer. This gives 3 clocks for retirement.
+<p>
+In conclusion, the loop above can execute in 3 clocks per iteration if the loop entry is
+aligned by 16. I am assuming that the conditional jump is predicted every time except on the
+exit of the loop (chapter <a href="#22_2">22.2</a>).
+<p>
+<h4>Using the same register for counter and index and letting the counter end at zero (PPro, PII and PIII)</h4>
+<h4><a name="2-3">Example 2.3:</a></h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ECX, [N]
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+4*ECX] ; point to end of array A
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+4*ECX] ; point to end of array B
+ NEG ECX ; -N
+ JZ SHORT L2
+ALIGN 16
+L1: MOV EAX, [ESI+4*ECX] ; len=3, p2rESIrECXwEAX
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI+4*ECX], EAX ; len=3, p4rEAX, p3rEDIrECX
+ INC ECX ; len=1, p01rwECXwF
+ JNZ L1 ; len=2, p1rF
+L2:</pre><p>
+Here we have reduced the number of uops to 6 by using the same register as counter and
+index. The base pointers point to the end of the arrays so that the index can count up
+through negative values to zero.
+<p>
+Decoding: There are two decode groups in the loop so it will decode in 2 clocks.
+<p>
+Instruction fetch: A loop always takes at least one clock cycle more than the the number of
+16 byte blocks. Since there are only 11 bytes of code in the loop it is possible to have it all
+in one ifetch block. By aligning the loop entry by 16 we can make sure that we don't get
+more than one 16-byte block so that it is possible to fetch in 2 clocks.
+<p>
+Register read stalls: The <kbd>ESI</kbd> and <kbd>EDI</kbd> registers are read, but not modified inside the loop.
+They will therefore be counted as permanent register reads, but not in the same triplet.
+Register <kbd>EAX, ECX</kbd>, and flags are modified inside the loop and read
+before they are written back so they will cause no permanent register reads.
+The conclusion is that there are no register read stalls.
+<p>
+Execution:<br>
+port 0 or 1: 2 uops<br>
+port 1: 1 uop<br>
+port 2: 1 uop<br>
+port 3: 1 uop<br>
+port 4: 1 uop<br>
+Execution time: 1.5 clocks.
+<p>
+Retirement:<br>
+6 uops = 2 clocks.
+<p>
+Conclusion: this loop takes only 2 clock cycles per iteration.
+<p>
+If you use absolute addresses instead of <kbd>ESI</kbd> and <kbd>EDI</kbd> then the loop will take 3 clocks
+because it cannot be contained in a single 16-byte block.
+<p>
+<h4>Unrolling a loop (PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+Doing more than one operation in each run and doing correspondingly fewer runs is called
+loop unrolling. In previous processors you would unroll loops to get parallel execution by
+pairing (chapter <a href="#25_1">25.1</a>). In PPro, PII and PIII this is not needed because the out-of-order
+execution mechanism takes care of that. There is no need to use two different registers
+either, because register renaming takes care of this. The purpose of unrolling here is to
+reduce the loop overhead per iteration.
+<p>
+The following example is the same as example 2.2 , but unrolled by 2, which means that
+you do two operations per iteration and half as many iterations
+<h4>Example 2.4:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ECX, [N]
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ SHR ECX, 1 ; N/2
+ JNC SHORT L1 ; test if N was odd
+ MOV EAX, [ESI] ; do the odd one first
+ ADD ESI, 4
+ NEG EAX
+ MOV [EDI], EAX
+ ADD EDI, 4
+L1: JECXZ L3
+
+ALIGN 16
+L2: MOV EAX, [ESI] ; len=2, p2rESIwEAX
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI], EAX ; len=2, p4rEAX, p3rEDI
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+4] ; len=3, p2rESIwEAX
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI+4], EAX ; len=3, p4rEAX, p3rEDI
+ ADD ESI, 8 ; len=3, p01rwESIwF
+ ADD EDI, 8 ; len=3, p01rwEDIwF
+ DEC ECX ; len=1, p01rwECXwF
+ JNZ L2 ; len=2, p1rF
+L3:</pre><p>
+In example 2.2 the loop overhead (i.e. adjusting pointers and counter, and jumping back)
+was 4 uops and the 'real job' was 4 uops. When unrolling the loop by two you do the 'real
+job' twice and the overhead once, so you get 12 uops in all. This reduces the overhead from
+50% to 33% of the uops. Since the unrolled loop can do only an even number of operations
+you have to check if N is odd and if so do one operation outside the loop.
+<p>
+Analyzing instruction fetching in this loop we find that a new ifetch block begins in the
+<kbd>ADD ESI,8</kbd> instruction, forcing it into decoder D0. This makes the loop decode in 5 clock cycles
+and not 4 as we wanted. We can solve this problem by coding the preceding instruction in a
+longer version. Change <kbd>MOV [EDI+4],EAX </kbd> to:
+<pre> MOV [EDI+9999],EAX ; make instruction with long displacement
+ ORG $-4
+ DD 4 ; rewrite displacement to 4</pre><p>
+This will force a new ifetch block to begin at the long <kbd>MOV [EDI+4],EAX</kbd>
+instruction, so that decoding time is now down at 4 clocks. The rest of the
+pipeline can handle 3 uops per clock so that the expected execution time is 4
+clocks per iteration, or 2 clocks per operation.
+<p>
+Testing this solution shows that it actually takes a little more. My measurements showed
+approximately 4.5 clocks per iteration. This is probably due to a sub-optimal reordering of
+the uops. Possibly, the ROB doesn't find the optimal execution-order for the uops but
+submits them in a less than optimal order. This problem was not predicted, and only testing
+can reveal such a problem. We may help the ROB by doing some of the reordering
+manually:
+<h4>Example 2.5:</h4><p>
+<pre>ALIGN 16
+L2: MOV EAX, [ESI] ; len=2, p2rESIwEAX
+ MOV EBX, [ESI+4] ; len=3, p2rESIwEBX
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI], EAX ; len=2, p4rEAX, p3rEDI
+ ADD ESI, 8 ; len=3, p01rwESIwF
+ NEG EBX ; len=2, p01rwEBXwF
+ MOV [EDI+4], EBX ; len=3, p4rEBX, p3rEDI
+ ADD EDI, 8 ; len=3, p01rwEDIwF
+ DEC ECX ; len=1, p01rwECXwF
+ JNZ L2 ; len=2, p1rF
+L3:</pre><p>
+The loop now executes in 4 clocks per iteration. This solution also solves the problem with
+instruction fetch blocks. The cost is that we need an extra register because we cannot take
+advantage of register renaming.
+<p>
+<h4>Rolling out by more than 2</h4><p>
+Loop unrolling is recommended when the loop overhead constitutes a high proportion of the
+total execution time. In example 2.3 the overhead is only 2 uops, so the gain by unrolling is
+little, but I will show you how to unroll it anyway, just for the exercise.
+<p>
+The 'real job' is 4 uops and the overhead 2. Unrolling by two we get 2*4+2 = 10 uops. The
+retirement time will be 10/3, rounded up to an integer, that is 4 clock cycles. This calculation
+shows that nothing is gained by unrolling this by two. Unrolling by four we get:
+<h4>Example 2.6:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ECX, [N]
+ SHL ECX, 2 ; number of bytes to handle
+ MOV ESI, [A]
+ MOV EDI, [B]
+ ADD ESI, ECX ; point to end of array A
+ ADD EDI, ECX ; point to end of array B
+ NEG ECX ; -4*N
+ TEST ECX, 4 ; test if N is odd
+ JZ SHORT L1
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+ECX] ; N is odd. do the odd one
+ NEG EAX
+ MOV [EDI+ECX], EAX
+ ADD ECX, 4
+L1: TEST ECX, 8 ; test if N/2 is odd
+ JZ SHORT L2
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+ECX] ; N/2 is odd. do two extra
+ NEG EAX
+ MOV [EDI+ECX], EAX
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+ECX+4]
+ NEG EAX
+ MOV [EDI+ECX+4], EAX
+ ADD ECX, 8
+L2: JECXZ SHORT L4
+
+ALIGN 16
+L3: MOV EAX, [ESI+ECX] ; len=3, p2rESIrECXwEAX
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI+ECX], EAX ; len=3, p4rEAX, p3rEDIrECX
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+ECX+4] ; len=4, p2rESIrECXwEAX
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI+ECX+4], EAX ; len=4, p4rEAX, p3rEDIrECX
+ MOV EAX, [ESI+ECX+8] ; len=4, p2rESIrECXwEAX
+ MOV EBX, [ESI+ECX+12] ; len=4, p2rESIrECXwEAX
+ NEG EAX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI+ECX+8], EAX ; len=4, p4rEAX, p3rEDIrECX
+ NEG EBX ; len=2, p01rwEAXwF
+ MOV [EDI+ECX+12], EBX ; len=4, p4rEAX, p3rEDIrECX
+ ADD ECX, 16 ; len=3, p01rwECXwF
+ JS L3 ; len=2, p1rF
+L4:</pre><p>
+The ifetch blocks are where we want them. Decode time is 6 clocks.
+<p>
+Register read stalls is a problem here because <kbd>ECX</kbd> has retired near the end of the loop
+and we need to read both <kbd>ESI, EDI,</kbd> and <kbd>ECX</kbd>. The instructions have been reordered in
+order to avoid reading ESI near the bottom so that we can avoid a register read stall. In
+other words, the reason for reordering instructions and use an extra register (<kbd>EBX</kbd>) is not the
+same as in the previous example.
+<p>
+There are 12 uops and the loop executes in 6 clocks per iteration, or 1.5 clocks per
+operation.
+<p>
+It may be tempting to unroll loops by a high factor in order to get the maximum speed. But
+since the loop overhead in most cases can be reduced to something like one clock cycle
+per iteration then unrolling the loop by 4 rather than by 2 would save only 1/4 clock cycle
+per operation which is hardly worth the effort. Only if the loop overhead is high compared to
+the rest of the loop and N is very big should you think of unrolling by 4. Unrolling by more
+than 4 does not make sense.
+<p>
+The drawbacks of excessive loop unrolling are:
+<ol>
+<li>You need to calculate N MODULO R, where R is the unrolling factor, and do N
+MODULO R operations before or after the main loop in order to make the remaining
+number of operations divisible by R. This takes a lot of extra code and poorly predictable
+branches. And the loop body of course also becomes bigger.
+<li>A Piece of code usually takes much more time the first time it executes, and the penalty
+of first time execution is bigger the more code you have, especially if N is small.
+<li>Excessive code size makes the utilization of the code cache less effective.
+</ol>
+<p>
+Using an unrolling factor which is not a power of 2 makes the calculation of N MODULO R
+quite difficult, and is generally not recommended unless N is known to be divisible by R.
+<a href="#unrollby3">Example 1.14</a> shows how to unroll by 3.
+<p>
+<h4>Handling multiple 8 or 16 bit operands simultaneously in 32 bit registers (PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+It is sometimes possible to handle four bytes at a time in the same 32 bit register. The
+following example adds 2 to all elements of an array of bytes:
+<h4><a name="2-7">Example 2.7:</a></h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ESI, [A] ; address of byte array
+ MOV ECX, [N] ; number of elements in byte array
+ JECXZ L2
+ALIGN 16
+ DB 7 DUP (90H) ; 7 NOP's for controlling alignment
+
+ L1: MOV EAX, [ESI] ; read four bytes
+ MOV EBX, EAX ; copy into EBX
+ AND EAX, 7F7F7F7FH ; get lower 7 bits of each byte in EAX
+ XOR EBX, EAX ; get the highest bit of each byte
+ ADD EAX, 02020202H ; add desired value to all four bytes
+ XOR EBX, EAX ; combine bits again
+ MOV [ESI], EBX ; store result
+ ADD ESI, 4 ; increment pointer
+ SUB ECX, 4 ; decrement loop counter
+ JA L1 ; loop
+L2:</pre><p>
+Note that I have masked out the highest bit of each byte to avoid a possible carry from each
+byte into the next one when adding. I am using <kbd>XOR</kbd> rather than
+<kbd>ADD</kbd> when putting in the high bit again to avoid carry.
+The array should of course be aligned by 4.
+<p>
+This loop should ideally take 4 clocks per iteration, but it takes somewhat
+more due to the dependency chain and difficult reordering. On PII and PIII
+you can do the same more effectively using MMX registers.
+<p>
+The next example finds the length of a zero-terminated string by searching for the first byte
+of zero. It is much faster than using <kbd>REPNE SCASB</kbd>:
+<h4><a name="2-8">Example 2.8:</a></h4><p>
+<pre>_strlen PROC NEAR
+ PUSH EBX
+ MOV EAX,[ESP+8] ; get pointer to string
+ LEA EDX,[EAX+3] ; pointer+3 used in the end
+L1: MOV EBX,[EAX] ; read first 4 bytes
+ ADD EAX,4 ; increment pointer
+ LEA ECX,[EBX-01010101H] ; subtract 1 from each byte
+ NOT EBX ; invert all bytes
+ AND ECX,EBX ; and these two
+ AND ECX,80808080H ; test all sign bits
+ JZ L1 ; no zero bytes, continue loop
+ MOV EBX,ECX
+ SHR EBX,16
+ TEST ECX,00008080H ; test first two bytes
+ CMOVZ ECX,EBX ; shift right if not in the first 2 bytes
+ LEA EBX,[EAX+2]
+ CMOVZ EAX,EBX
+ SHL CL,1 ; use carry flag to avoid branch
+ SBB EAX,EDX ; compute length
+ POP EBX
+ RET
+_strlen ENDP</pre><p>
+This loop takes 3 clocks for each iteration testing 4 bytes. The string should of course be
+aligned by 4. The code may read past the end of the string, so the string should not be
+placed at the end of a segment.
+<p>
+Handling 4 bytes simultaneously can be quite difficult. This code uses a formula which
+generates a nonzero value for a byte if, and only if, the byte is zero. This makes it possible
+to test all four bytes in one operation. This algorithm involves the subtraction of 1 from all
+bytes (in the <kbd>LEA ECX</kbd> instruction). I have not masked out the highest bit of each byte
+before subtracting, as I did in example <a href="#2-7">2.7</a>, so the subtraction may generate a borrow to the
+next byte, but only if it is zero, and this is exactly the situation where we don't care what the
+next byte is, because we are searching forwards for the first zero. If we were searching
+backwards then we would have to re-read the dword after detecting a zero, and then test all
+four bytes to find the last zero, or use <kbd>BSWAP</kbd> to reverse the order of the bytes. If you want
+to search for a byte value other than zero, then you may <kbd>XOR</kbd> all four bytes with the value
+you are searching for, and then use the method above to search for zero.
+<p>
+<h4>Loops with MMX instructions (PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+Using MMX instructions we can compare 8 bytes in one operation:
+<h4><a name="2-9">Example 2.9:</a></h4><p>
+<pre>_strlen PROC NEAR
+ PUSH EBX
+ MOV EAX,[ESP+8]
+ LEA EDX,[EAX+7]
+ PXOR MM0,MM0
+L1: MOVQ MM1,[EAX] ; len=3 p2rEAXwMM1
+ ADD EAX,8 ; len=3 p01rEAX
+ PCMPEQB MM1,MM0 ; len=3 p01rMM0rMM1
+ MOVD EBX,MM1 ; len=3 p01rMM1wEBX
+ PSRLQ MM1,32 ; len=4 p1rMM1
+ MOVD ECX,MM1 ; len=3 p01rMM1wECX
+ OR ECX,EBX ; len=2 p01rECXrEBXwF
+ JZ L1 ; len=2 p1rF
+ MOVD ECX,MM1
+ TEST EBX,EBX
+ CMOVZ EBX,ECX
+ LEA ECX,[EAX+4]
+ CMOVZ EAX,ECX
+ MOV ECX,EBX
+ SHR ECX,16
+ TEST BX,BX
+ CMOVZ EBX,ECX
+ LEA ECX,[EAX+2]
+ CMOVZ EAX,ECX
+ SHR BL,1
+ SBB EAX,EDX
+ EMMS
+ POP EBX
+ RET
+_strlen ENDP</pre><p>
+This loop has 7 uops for port 0 and 1 which gives an average execution time of 3.5 clocks
+per iteration. The measured time is 3.8 clocks which shows that the ROB handles the
+situation reasonably well despite a dependency chain that is 6 uops long. Testing 8 bytes in
+less than 4 clocks is incredibly much faster than <kbd>REPNE SCASB</kbd>.
+<p>
+<h4>Loops with floating point instructions (PPro, PII and PIII)</h4><p>
+The methods for optimizing floating point loops are basically the same as for integer loops,
+but you should be more aware of dependency chains because of the long latencies of
+instruction execution.
+<p>
+Consider the C language code:
+<pre> int i, n; double * X; double * Y; double DA;
+ for (i=0; i<n; i++) Y[i] = Y[i] - DA * X[i];</pre><p>
+This piece of code (called DAXPY) has been studied extensively because it is the key to
+solving linear equations.
+<h4>Example 2.10:</h4><p>
+<pre>DSIZE = 8 ; data size (4 or 8)
+ MOV ECX, [N] ; number of elements
+ MOV ESI, [X] ; pointer to X
+ MOV EDI, [Y] ; pointer to Y
+ JECXZ L2 ; test for N = 0
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA] ; load DA outside loop
+ALIGN 16
+ DB 2 DUP (90H) ; 2 NOP's for alignment
+L1: FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI] ; len=3 p2rESIwST0
+ ADD ESI,DSIZE ; len=3 p01rESI
+ FMUL ST,ST(1) ; len=2 p0rST0rST1
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI] ; len=3 p2rEDI, p0rST0
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI] ; len=3 p4rST0, p3rEDI
+ ADD EDI,DSIZE ; len=3 p01rEDI
+ DEC ECX ; len=1 p01rECXwF
+ JNZ L1 ; len=2 p1rF
+ FSTP ST ; discard DA
+L2:</pre><p>
+The dependency chain is 10 clock cycles long, but the loop takes only 4 clocks per iteration
+because it can begin a new operation before the previous one is finished. The purpose of
+the alignment is to prevent a 16-byte boundary in the last ifetch block.
+<p>
+<h4>Example 2.11:</h4><p>
+<pre>DSIZE = 8 ; data size (4 or 8)
+ MOV ECX, [N] ; number of elements
+ MOV ESI, [X] ; pointer to X
+ MOV EDI, [Y] ; pointer to Y
+ LEA ESI, [ESI+DSIZE*ECX] ; point to end of array
+ LEA EDI, [EDI+DSIZE*ECX] ; point to end of array
+ NEG ECX ; -N
+ JZ SHORT L2 ; test for N = 0
+ FLD DSIZE PTR [DA] ; load DA outside loop
+ALIGN 16
+L1: FLD DSIZE PTR [ESI+DSIZE*ECX] ; len=3 p2rESIrECXwST0
+ FMUL ST,ST(1) ; len=2 p0rST0rST1
+ FSUBR DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX] ; len=3 p2rEDIrECX, p0rST0
+ FSTP DSIZE PTR [EDI+DSIZE*ECX] ; len=3 p4rST0, p3rEDIrECX
+ INC ECX ; len=1 p01rECXwF
+ JNZ L1 ; len=2 p1rF
+ FSTP ST ; discard DA
+L2:</pre><p>
+Here we have used the same trick as in example <a href="#2-3">2.3</a>. Ideally, this loop should take 3
+clocks, but measurements say approximately 3.5 clocks due to the long dependency chain.
+Unrolling the loop doesn't save much.
+<p>
+<h4>Loops with XMM instructions (PIII)</h4><p>
+The XMM instructions on the PIII allow you to operate on four single precision
+floating point numbers in parallel. The operands must be aligned by 16.
+<p>
+The DAXPY algorithm is not very suited for XMM instructions because the precision
+is poor, it may not be possible to align the operands by 16, and you need some
+extra code if the number of operations is not a multiple of four. I am showing
+the code here anyway, just to give an example of a loop with XMM instructions:
+<h4>Example 2.12:</h4><p>
+<pre> MOV ECX, [N] ; number of elements
+ MOV ESI, [X] ; pointer to X
+ MOV EDI, [Y] ; pointer to Y
+ SHL ECX, 2
+ ADD ESI, ECX ; point to end of X
+ ADD EDI, ECX ; point to end of Y
+ NEG ECX ; -4*N
+ MOV EAX, [DA] ; load DA outside loop
+ XOR EAX, 80000000H ; change sign of DA
+ PUSH EAX
+ MOVSS XMM1, [ESP] ; -DA
+ ADD ESP, 4
+ SHUFPS XMM1, XMM1, 0 ; copy -DA to all four positions
+ CMP ECX, -16
+ JG L2
+L1: MOVAPS XMM0, [ESI+ECX] ; len=4 2*p2rESIrECXwXMM0
+ ADD ECX, 16 ; len=3 p01rwECXwF
+ MULPS XMM0, XMM1 ; len=3 2*p0rXMM0rXMM1
+ CMP ECX, -16 ; len=3 p01rECXwF
+ ADDPS XMM0, [EDI+ECX-16] ; len=5 2*p2rEDIrECX, 2*p1rXMM0
+ MOVAPS [EDI+ECX-16], XMM0 ; len=5 2*p4rXMM0, 2*p3rEDIrECX
+ JNG L1 ; len=2 p1rF
+L2: JECXZ L4 ; check if finished
+ MOVAPS XMM0, [ESI+ECX] ; 1-3 operations missing, do 4 more
+ MULPS XMM0, XMM1
+ ADDPS XMM0, [EDI+ECX]
+ CMP ECX, -8
+ JG L3
+ MOVLPS [EDI+ECX], XMM0 ; store two more results
+ ADD ECX, 8
+ MOVHLPS XMM0, XMM0
+L3: JECXZ L4
+ MOVSS [EDI+ECX], XMM0 ; store one more result
+L4:</pre><p>
+The <kbd>L1</kbd> loop takes 5-6 clocks for 4 operations.
+The <kbd>ECX</kbd> instructions have been placed before and after the
+<kbd>MULPS XMM0, XMM1</kbd> instruction in order to avoid a register read port stall
+generated by the reading of the two parts of the <kbd>XMM1</kbd> register
+together with <kbd>ESI</kbd> or <kbd>EDI</kbd> in the RAT. The extra code after
+<kbd>L2</kbd> takes care of the situation where N is not divisible by 4.
+Note that this code may read past the end of A and B. This may delay the last
+operation if the extra memory positions read do not contain normal floating
+point numbers. If possible, put in some dummy extra data to make the number
+of operations divisible by 4 and leave out the extra code after <kbd>L2</kbd>.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="26">26</a>. Problematic Instructions</h2>
+<h3><a name="26_1">26.1 XCHG (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+The <kbd>XCHG register,[memory]</kbd> instruction is dangerous. By default this instruction has
+an implicit <kbd>LOCK</kbd> prefix which prevents it from using the cache. This instruction is therefore
+very time consuming, and should always be avoided.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_2">26.2 Rotates through carry (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+<kbd>RCR</kbd> and <kbd>RCL</kbd> with a count different from one are slow and should be avoided.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_3">26.3 String instructions (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+String instructions without a repeat prefix are too slow and should be replaced by simpler
+instructions. The same applies to <kbd>LOOP</kbd> on all processors and to
+<kbd>JECXZ</kbd> on PPlain and PMMX.
+<p>
+<kbd>REP MOVSD</kbd> and <kbd>REP STOSD</kbd> are quite fast if the repeat
+count is not too small. Always use the DWORD version if possible, and make
+sure that both source and destination are aligned by 8.
+<p>
+Some other methods of moving data are faster under certain conditions. See
+chapter <a href="#27_8">27.8</a> for details.
+<p>
+Note that while the <kbd>REP MOVS</kbd> instruction writes a word to the destination, it reads the next
+word from the source in the same clock cycle. You can have a cache bank conflict if bit 2-4
+are the same in these two addresses. In other words, you will get a penalty of one clock
+extra per iteration if <kbd>ESI+(wordsize)-EDI</kbd> is divisible by 32. The easiest way to avoid
+cache bank conflicts is to use the DWORD version and align both source and destination by
+8. Never use <kbd>MOVSB</kbd> or <kbd>MOVSW</kbd> in optimized code, not even in 16 bit mode.
+<p>
+<kbd>REP MOVS</kbd> and <kbd>REP STOS</kbd> can perform very fast by moving an entire cache line at a time
+on PPro, PII and PIII. This happens only when the following conditions are met:
+<ul>
+<li>both source and destination must be aligned by 8
+<li>direction must be forward (direction flag cleared)
+<li>the count (<kbd>ECX</kbd>) must be greater than or equal to 64
+<li>the difference between <kbd>EDI</kbd> and <kbd>ESI</kbd> must be numerically greater than or equal to 32
+<li>the memory type for both source and destination must be either writeback or
+write-combining (you can normally assume this).
+</ul><p>
+Under these conditions the number of uops issued is approximately 215+2*<kbd>ECX</kbd> for
+<kbd>REP MOVSD</kbd> and 185+1.5*<kbd>ECX</kbd> for <kbd>REP STOSD,</kbd>
+giving a speed of approximately 5 bytes per
+clock cycle for both instructions, which is almost 3 times as fast as when the above
+conditions are not met.
+<p>
+The byte and word versions also benefit from this fast mode, but they are less effective than
+the dword versions.
+<p>
+<kbd>REP STOSD</kbd> is optimal under the same conditions as <kbd>REP MOVSD</kbd>.
+<p>
+<kbd>REP LOADS, REP SCAS,</kbd> and <kbd>REP CMPS</kbd> are not optimal, and
+may be replaced by loops. See example <a href="#1-10">1.10</a>, <a href="#2-8">2.8</a>
+and <a href="#2-9">2.9</a> for alternatives to <kbd>REPNE SCASB. REP CMPS</kbd>
+may suffer cache bank conflicts if bit 2-4 are the same in <kbd>ESI</kbd> and
+<kbd>EDI</kbd>.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_4">26.4 Bit test (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+<kbd>BT, BTC, BTR</kbd>, and <kbd>BTS</kbd> instructions should preferably be replaced by instructions like
+<kbd>TEST, AND, OR, XOR</kbd>, or shifts on PPlain and PMMX. On PPro, PII and PIII, bit tests with a
+memory operand should be avoided.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_5">26.5 Integer multiplication (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+An integer multiplication takes approximately 9 clock cycles on PPlain and PMMX and 4 on
+PPro, PII and PIII. It is therefore often advantageous to replace a multiplication by a constant
+with a combination of other instructions such as <kbd>SHL, ADD, SUB</kbd>,
+and <kbd>LEA</kbd>. Example:<br>
+<kbd>IMUL EAX,10</kbd><br>
+can be replaced with<br>
+<kbd>MOV EBX,EAX / ADD EAX,EAX / SHL EBX,3 / ADD EAX,EBX</kbd><br>
+or<br>
+<kbd>LEA EAX,[EAX+4*EAX] / ADD EAX,EAX</kbd>
+<p>
+Floating point multiplication is faster than integer multiplication on PPlain and PMMX, but
+the time spent on converting integers to float and converting the product back again is
+usually more than the time saved by using floating point multiplication, except when the
+number of conversions is low compared with the number of multiplications. MMX
+multiplication is fast, but is only available with 16-bit operands.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_6">26.6 WAIT instruction (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+You can often increase speed by omitting the <kbd>WAIT</kbd> instruction.
+The <kbd>WAIT</kbd> instruction has three functions:
+<p>
+<u>a.</u> The old 8087 processor requires a <kbd>WAIT</kbd> before every
+floating point instruction to make sure the coprocessor is ready to receive it.
+<p>
+<u>b.</u> <kbd>WAIT</kbd> is used for coordinating memory access between the floating point unit and the
+integer unit. Examples:
+<pre><u>b.1.</u> FISTP [mem32]
+ WAIT ; wait for FPU to write before..
+ MOV EAX,[mem32] ; reading the result with the integer unit
+
+<u>b.2.</u> FILD [mem32]
+ WAIT ; wait for FPU to read value..
+ MOV [mem32],EAX ; before overwriting it with integer unit
+
+<u>b.3.</u> FLD QWORD PTR [ESP]
+ WAIT ; prevent an accidental interrupt from..
+ ADD ESP,8 ; overwriting value on stack</pre>
+<p>
+<u>c.</u> <kbd>WAIT</kbd> is sometimes used to check for exceptions. It will generate an interrupt if an
+unmasked exception bit in the floating point status word has been set by a preceding
+floating point instruction.
+<p>
+<u>Regarding a:</u><br>
+The function in point a is never needed on any other processors than the old 8087. Unless
+you want your code to be compatible with the 8087 you should tell your assembler not to
+put in these <kbd>WAIT</kbd>'s by specifying a higher processor. A 8087 floating point emulator also
+inserts <kbd>WAIT</kbd> instructions. You should therefore tell your assembler not to generate
+emulation code unless you need it.
+<p>
+<u>Regarding b:</u><br>
+<kbd>WAIT</kbd> instructions to coordinate memory access are definitely needed on the 8087 and
+80287 but not on the Pentiums. It is not quite clear whether it is needed on the 80387 and
+80486. I have made several tests on these Intel processors and not been able to provoke
+any error by omitting the <kbd>WAIT</kbd> on any 32 bit Intel processor, although Intel manuals say that
+the <kbd>WAIT</kbd> is needed for this purpose except after <kbd>FNSTSW</kbd>
+ and <kbd>FNSTCW</kbd>. Omitting <kbd>WAIT</kbd>
+instructions for coordinating memory access is not 100 % safe, even when writing 32 bit
+code, because the code may be able to run on the very rare combination of a 80386 main
+processor with a 287 coprocessor, which requires the <kbd>WAIT</kbd>. Also, I have no information on
+non-Intel processors, and I have not tested all possible hardware and software
+combinations, so there may be other situations where the <kbd>WAIT</kbd> is needed.
+<p>
+If you want to be certain that your code will work on any 32 bit processor (including
+non-Intel processors) then I would recommend that you include the <kbd>WAIT</kbd> here in order to be
+safe.
+<p>
+<u>Regarding c:</u><br>
+The assembler automatically inserts a <kbd>WAIT</kbd> for this purpose before the following
+instructions: <kbd>FCLEX, FINIT, FSAVE, FSTCW, FSTENV, FSTSW</kbd>. You can omit the <kbd>WAIT</kbd>
+by writing FNCLEX, etc. My tests show that the WAIT is unneccessary in most cases
+because these instructions without <kbd>WAIT</kbd> will still generate an interrupt on exceptions except
+for <kbd>FNCLEX</kbd> and <kbd>FNINIT</kbd> on the 80387. (There is some inconsistency about whether the
+<kbd>IRET</kbd> from the interrupt points to the <kbd>FN..</kbd> instruction or to the next instruction).
+<p>
+Almost all other floating point instructions will also generate an interrupt if a previous floating
+point instruction has set an unmasked exception bit, so the exception is likely to be detected
+sooner or later anyway. You may insert a <kbd>WAIT</kbd> after the last floating point instruction in your
+program to be sure to catch all exceptions.
+<p>
+You may still need the <kbd>WAIT</kbd> if you want to know exactly where an exception occurred in
+order to be able to recover from the situation. Consider, for example, the code under b.3
+above: If you want to be able to recover from an exception generated by the <kbd>FLD</kbd> here, then
+you need the <kbd>WAIT</kbd> because an interrupt after <kbd>ADD ESP,8</kbd> would overwrite the value to load.
+<kbd>FNOP</kbd> may be faster than <kbd>WAIT</kbd> and serve the same purpose.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_7">26.7 FCOM + FSTSW AX (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+The <kbd>FNSTSW</kbd> instruction is very slow on all processors. The PPro, PII and PIII
+processors have
+<kbd>FCOMI</kbd> instructions to avoid the slow <kbd>FNSTSW</kbd>.
+Using <kbd>FCOMI</kbd> instead of the common
+sequence <kbd>FCOM / FNSTSW AX / SAHF</kbd> will save you 8 clock cycles. You should
+therefore use <kbd>FCOMI</kbd> to avoid <kbd>FNSTSW</kbd> wherever possible, even in cases where it costs
+some extra code.
+<p>
+On processors without <kbd>FCOMI</kbd> instructions, the usual way of doing floating point
+comparisons is:
+<pre> FLD [a]
+ FCOMP [b]
+ FSTSW AX
+ SAHF
+ JB ASmallerThanB</pre><p>
+You may improve this code by using <kbd>FNSTSW AX</kbd> rather than
+<kbd>FSTSW AX</kbd> and test <kbd>AH</kbd>
+directly rather than using the non-pairable <kbd>SAHF</kbd>
+(TASM version 3.0 has a bug with the <kbd>FNSTSW AX</kbd> instruction):
+<pre> FLD [a]
+ FCOMP [b]
+ FNSTSW AX
+ SHR AH,1
+ JC ASmallerThanB</pre>
+<p>
+Testing for zero or equality:
+<pre> FTST
+ FNSTSW AX
+ AND AH,40H
+ JNZ IsZero ; (the zero flag is inverted!)</pre>
+<p>
+Test if greater:
+<pre> FLD [a]
+ FCOMP [b]
+ FNSTSW AX
+ AND AH,41H
+ JZ AGreaterThanB</pre>
+<p>
+Do not use <kbd>TEST AH,41H</kbd> as it is not pairable on PPlain and PMMX.
+<p>
+On the PPlain and PMMX, the <kbd>FNSTSW</kbd> instruction takes 2 clocks, but it is delayed for an
+additional 4 clocks after any floating point instruction because it is waiting for the status
+word to retire from the pipeline. This delay comes even after <kbd>FNOP</kbd>
+which cannot change the status word, but not after integer instructions.
+You can fill the latency between <kbd>FCOM</kbd> and
+<kbd>FNSTSW</kbd> with integer instructions taking up to four clock cycles.
+A paired <kbd>FXCH</kbd> immediately
+after <kbd>FCOM</kbd> doesn't delay the <kbd>FNSTSW</kbd>, not even if the pairing is imperfect:
+<pre> FCOM ; clock 1
+ FXCH ; clock 1-2 (imperfect pairing)
+ INC DWORD PTR [EBX] ; clock 3-5
+ FNSTSW AX ; clock 6-7</pre>
+<p>
+You may want to use <kbd>FCOM</kbd> rather than <kbd>FTST</kbd>
+here because <kbd>FTST</kbd> is not pairable.
+Remember to include the <kbd>N</kbd> in <kbd>FNSTSW</kbd>. <kbd>FSTSW</kbd>
+(without <kbd>N</kbd>) has a <kbd>WAIT</kbd> prefix which delays
+it further.
+<p>
+It is sometimes faster to use integer instructions for comparing floating point values, as
+described in chapter <a href="#27_6">27.6</a>.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_8">26.8 FPREM (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+The <kbd>FPREM</kbd> and <kbd>FPREM1</kbd> instructions are slow on all
+processors. You may replace it by the following algorithm: Multiply by
+the reciprocal divisor, get the fractional part by subtracting
+the truncated value, then multiply by the divisor.
+(see chapter <a href="#27_5">27.5</a> on how to truncate)
+<p>
+Some documents say that these instructions may give incomplete reductions and
+that it is therefore necessary to repeat the <kbd>FPREM</kbd> or
+<kbd>FPREM1</kbd> instruction until the reduction is complete.
+I have tested this on several processors beginning with the old 8087 and I have
+found no situation where a repetition of the <kbd>FPREM</kbd> or <kbd>FPREM1</kbd>
+was needed.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_9">26.9 FRNDINT (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+This instruction is slow on all processors. Replace it by:
+<pre>
+ FISTP QWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ FILD QWORD PTR [TEMP]</pre><p>
+This code is faster despite a possible penalty for attempting to read from
+<kbd>[TEMP]</kbd> before the write is finished. It is recommended to put
+other instructions in between in order to avoid
+this penalty. See chapter <a href="#27_5">27.5</a> on how to truncate.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_10">26.10 FSCALE and exponential function (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+<kbd>FSCALE</kbd> is slow on all processors. Computing integer powers
+of 2 can be done much faster by inserting the desired power in the exponent
+field of the floating point number.
+To calculate 2<sup>N</sup>, where N is a signed integer, select from the examples below the one that
+fits your range of N:
+<p>
+For |N| < 2<sup>7</sup>-1 you can use single precision:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [N]
+ SHL EAX, 23
+ ADD EAX, 3F800000H
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP], EAX
+ FLD DWORD PTR [TEMP]</pre>
+<p>
+For |N| < 2<sup>10</sup>-1 you can use double precision:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [N]
+ SHL EAX, 20
+ ADD EAX, 3FF00000H
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP], 0
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP+4], EAX
+ FLD QWORD PTR [TEMP]</pre>
+<p>
+For |N| < 2<sup>14</sup>-1 use long double precision:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [N]
+ ADD EAX, 00003FFFH
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP], 0
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP+4], 80000000H
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP+8], EAX
+ FLD TBYTE PTR [TEMP]</pre>
+<p>
+<kbd>FSCALE</kbd> is often used in the calculation of exponential functions. The following code shows
+an exponential function without the slow <kbd>FRNDINT</kbd> and <kbd>FSCALE</kbd> instructions:
+<p>
+<pre>; extern "C" long double _cdecl exp (double x);
+_exp PROC NEAR
+PUBLIC _exp
+ FLDL2E
+ FLD QWORD PTR [ESP+4] ; x
+ FMUL ; z = x*log2(e)
+ FIST DWORD PTR [ESP+4] ; round(z)
+ SUB ESP, 12
+ MOV DWORD PTR [ESP], 0
+ MOV DWORD PTR [ESP+4], 80000000H
+ FISUB DWORD PTR [ESP+16] ; z - round(z)
+ MOV EAX, [ESP+16]
+ ADD EAX,3FFFH
+ MOV [ESP+8],EAX
+ JLE SHORT UNDERFLOW
+ CMP EAX,8000H
+ JGE SHORT OVERFLOW
+ F2XM1
+ FLD1
+ FADD ; 2^(z-round(z))
+ FLD TBYTE PTR [ESP] ; 2^(round(z))
+ ADD ESP,12
+ FMUL ; 2^z = e^x
+ RET
+
+UNDERFLOW:
+ FSTP ST
+ FLDZ ; return 0
+ ADD ESP,12
+ RET
+
+OVERFLOW:
+ PUSH 07F800000H ; +infinity
+ FSTP ST
+ FLD DWORD PTR [ESP] ; return infinity
+ ADD ESP,16
+ RET
+
+_exp ENDP</pre>
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_11">26.11 FPTAN (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+According to the manuals, <kbd>FPTAN</kbd> returns two values X and Y and
+leaves it to the programmer to divide Y with X to get the result, but in
+fact it always returns 1 in X so you can save the division. My tests show that
+on all 32 bit Intel processors with floating point unit or coprocessor,
+<kbd>FPTAN</kbd> always returns 1 in X regardless of the argument. If you want to
+be absolutely sure that your code will run correctly on all processors, then
+you may test if X is 1, which is faster than dividing with X. The Y value may
+be very high, but never infinity, so you don't have to test if Y contains a
+valid number if you know that the argument is valid.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_12">26.12 FSQRT (PIII)</a></h3><p>
+A fast way of calculating an approximate squareroot on the PIII is to multiply
+the reciprocal squareroot of x by x:<br>
+SQRT(x) = x * RSQRT(x)<br>
+The instruction <kbd>RSQRTSS</kbd> or <kbd>RSQRTPS</kbd> gives the reciprocal
+squareroot with a precision of 12 bits. You can improve the precision to 23 bits
+by using the Newton-Raphson formula described in Intel's application note AP-803:<br>
+x<sub>0</sub> = <kbd>RSQRTSS</kbd>(a)<br>
+x<sub>1</sub> = 0.5 * x<sub>0</sub> * (3 - (a * x<sub>0</sub>)) * x<sub>0</sub>)<br>
+where x<sub>0</sub> is the first approximation to the reciprocal squareroot of
+a, and x<sub>1</sub> is a better approximation. The order of evaluation is
+important. You must use this formula before multiplying with a to get the squareroot.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_13">26.13 MOV [MEM], ACCUM (PPlain and PMMX)</a></h3><p>
+The instructions <kbd>MOV [mem],AL MOV [mem],AX MOV [mem],EAX</kbd>
+ are treated by the pairing circuitry as if they were writing to the accumulator.
+ Thus the following instructions do not pair:
+<pre> MOV [mydata], EAX
+ MOV EBX, EAX</pre>
+<p>
+This problem occurs only with the short form of the <kbd>MOV</kbd>
+ instruction which can not have a
+base or index register, and which can only have the accumulator as source.
+You can avoid the problem by using another register, by reordering your
+instructions, by using a pointer, or by hard-coding the general form of
+the <kbd>MOV</kbd> instruction.
+<p>
+In 32 bit mode you can write the general form of <kbd>MOV [mem],EAX</kbd>:
+<pre> DB 89H, 05H
+ DD OFFSET DS:mem</pre>
+<p>
+In 16 bit mode you can write the general form of <kbd>MOV [mem],AX</kbd>:
+<pre> DB 89H, 06H
+ DW OFFSET DS:mem</pre>
+<p>
+To use <kbd>AL</kbd> instead of <kbd>(E)AX</kbd>, you replace <kbd>89H</kbd>
+ with <kbd>88H</kbd>
+<p>
+This flaw has not been fixed in the PMMX.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_14">26.14 TEST instruction (PPlain and PMMX)</a></h3><p>
+The <kbd>TEST</kbd> instruction with an immediate operand is only
+pairable if the destination is <kbd>AL</kbd>, <kbd>AX</kbd>, or <kbd>EAX</kbd>.
+<p>
+<kbd>TEST register,register</kbd>
+ and <kbd>TEST register,memory</kbd> is always pairable.
+<p>
+Examples:
+<pre> TEST ECX,ECX ; pairable
+ TEST [mem],EBX ; pairable
+ TEST EDX,256 ; not pairable
+ TEST DWORD PTR [EBX],8000H ; not pairable</pre><p>
+To make it pairable, use any of the following methods:
+<pre> MOV EAX,[EBX] / TEST EAX,8000H
+ MOV EDX,[EBX] / AND EDX,8000H
+ MOV AL,[EBX+1] / TEST AL,80H
+ MOV AL,[EBX+1] / TEST AL,AL ; (result in sign flag)</pre><p>
+(The reason for this non-pairability is probably that the first byte of the 2-byte instruction is
+the same as for some other non-pairable instructions, and the processor cannot afford to
+check the second byte too when determining pairability.)
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_15">26.15 Bit scan (PPlain and PMMX)</a></h3><p>
+<kbd>BSF</kbd> and <kbd>BSR</kbd> are the poorest optimized instructions on
+the PPlain and PMMX, taking
+approximately 11 + 2*n clock cycles, where n is the number of zeros skipped.
+<p>
+The following code emulates <kbd>BSR ECX,EAX</kbd>:
+<pre> TEST EAX,EAX
+ JZ SHORT BS1
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP],EAX
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP+4],0
+ FILD QWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ FSTP QWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ WAIT ; WAIT only needed for compatibility with old 80287 processor
+ MOV ECX, DWORD PTR [TEMP+4]
+ SHR ECX,20 ; isolate exponent
+ SUB ECX,3FFH ; adjust
+ TEST EAX,EAX ; clear zero flag
+BS1:</pre>
+<p>
+The following code emulates <kbd>BSF ECX,EAX</kbd>:
+<pre> TEST EAX,EAX
+ JZ SHORT BS2
+ XOR ECX,ECX
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP+4],ECX
+ SUB ECX,EAX
+ AND EAX,ECX
+ MOV DWORD PTR [TEMP],EAX
+ FILD QWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ FSTP QWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ WAIT ; WAIT only needed for compatibility with old 80287 processor
+ MOV ECX, DWORD PTR [TEMP+4]
+ SHR ECX,20
+ SUB ECX,3FFH
+ TEST EAX,EAX ; clear zero flag
+BS2:</pre>
+<p>
+These emulation codes should not be used on the PPro, PII and PIII, where the bit scan
+instructions take only 1 or 2 clocks, and where the emulation codes shown above have two
+partial memory stalls.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="26_16">26.16 FLDCW (PPro, PII and PIII)</a></h3><p>
+The PPro, PII and PIII have a serious stall after the
+<kbd>FLDCW</kbd> instruction if followed by any floating
+point instruction which reads the control word (which almost all floating
+point instructions do).
+<p>
+When C or C++ code is compiled it often generates a lot of
+<kbd>FLDCW</kbd> instructions because conversion of floating point numbers
+to integers is done with truncation while other floating
+point instructions use rounding. After translation to assembly, you can
+improve this code by using rounding instead of truncation where possible,
+or by moving the <kbd>FLDCW</kbd> out of a loop
+where truncation is needed inside the loop.
+<p>
+See chapter <a href="#27_5">27.5</a> on how to convert floating point numbers to integers
+whitout changing the control word.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="27">27</a>. Special topics</h2>
+<h3><a name="27_1">27.1 LEA instruction (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+The <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction is useful for many purposes because it can do
+a shift, two additions, and a move in just one instruction taking one clock cycle.
+Example:<br>
+<kbd>LEA EAX,[EBX+8*ECX-1000]</kbd><br>
+is much faster than<br>
+<kbd>MOV EAX,ECX / SHL EAX,3 / ADD EAX,EBX / SUB EAX,1000</kbd><br>
+The <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction can also be used to do an add or shift without
+changing the flags. The source and destination need not have the same word size,
+so <kbd>LEA EAX,[BX]</kbd> is a possible
+replacement for <kbd>MOVZX EAX,BX</kbd>, although suboptimal on most processors.
+<p>
+You must be aware, however, that the <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction will suffer
+an AGI stall on the PPlain and PMMX if it uses a base or index register
+which has been written to in the preceding clock cycle.
+<p>
+Since the <kbd>LEA</kbd> instruction is pairable in the v-pipe on PPlain and
+PMMX and shift instructions are not, you may use <kbd>LEA</kbd> as
+a substitute for a <kbd>SHL</kbd> by 1, 2, or 3 if you want the
+instruction to execute in the V-pipe.
+<p>
+The 32 bit processors have no documented addressing mode with a scaled index register
+and nothing else, so an instruction like <kbd>LEA EAX,[EAX*2]</kbd>
+is actually coded as <kbd>LEA EAX,[EAX*2+00000000]</kbd>
+with an immediate displacement of 4 bytes. You may reduce the
+instruction size by instead writing <kbd>LEA EAX,[EAX+EAX]</kbd> or even
+better <kbd>ADD EAX,EAX</kbd>.
+The latter code cannot have an AGI delay in PPlain and PMMX. If you happen to have a register
+which is zero (like a loop counter after a loop), then you may use it
+as a base register to reduce the code size:
+<p>
+<pre>LEA EAX,[EBX*4] ; 7 bytes
+LEA EAX,[ECX+EBX*4] ; 3 bytes</pre>
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_2">27.2 Division (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+Division is quite time consuming. On PPro, PII and PIII an integer division
+takes 19, 23, or 39 clocks for byte, word, and dword divisors respectively.
+On PPlain and PMMX an unsigned integer division takes approximately the same,
+while a signed integer division takes somewhat more. It is therefore
+preferable to use the smallest operand size possible that won't generate an
+overflow, even if it costs an operand size prefix, and use unsigned
+division if possible.
+<p>
+<h4>Integer division by a constant (all processors)</h4><p>
+Integer division by a power of two can be done by shifting right. Dividing an
+unsigned integer by 2<sup>N</sup>:
+<pre> SHR EAX, N</pre><p>
+Dividing a signed integer by 2<sup>N</sup>:
+<pre> CDQ
+ AND EDX, (1 SHL N) -1 ; or SHR EDX, 32-N
+ ADD EAX, EDX
+ SAR EAX, N</pre><p>
+The <kbd>SHR</kbd> alternative is shorter than the <kbd>AND</kbd> if N > 7,
+but can only go to execution port 0 (or u-pipe), whereas <kbd>AND</kbd> can
+go to either port 0 or 1 (u or v-pipe).
+<p>
+Dividing by a constant can be done by multiplying with the reciprocal.
+To calculate the unsigned integer division q = x / d, you first calculate
+the reciprocal of the divisor, f = 2<sup>r</sup> / d, where r defines the position of the binary
+decimal point (radix point). Then multiply x with f and shift
+right r positions. The maximum value of r is 32+b, where b is the number of binary digits in d
+minus 1. (b is the highest integer for which 2<sup>b</sup> <= d). Use r = 32+b to cover the maximum
+range for the value of the dividend x.
+<p>
+This method needs some refinement in order to compensate for rounding errors.
+The following algorithm will give you the correct result for unsigned integer
+division with truncation, i.e. the same result as the <kbd>DIV</kbd>
+instruction gives (Thanks to Terje Mathisen who invented this method):
+ <pre>
+ b = (the number of significant bits in d) - 1
+ r = 32 + b
+ f = 2<sup>r</sup> / d
+ If f is an integer then d is a power of 2: goto case A.
+ If f is not an integer, then check if the fractional part of f is < 0.5
+ If the fractional part of f < 0.5: goto case B.
+ If the fractional part of f > 0.5: goto case C.
+
+ case A: (d = 2<sup>b</sup>)
+ result = x SHR b
+
+ case B: (fractional part of f < 0.5)
+ round f down to nearest integer
+ result = ((x+1) * f) SHR r
+
+ case C: (fractional part of f > 0.5)
+ round f up to nearest integer
+ result = (x * f) SHR r
+ </pre>
+<p>
+Example:<br>
+Assume that you want to divide by 5.<br>
+5 = 00000101b.<br>
+b = (number of significant binary digits) - 1 = 2<br>
+r = 32+2 = 34<br>
+f = 2<sup>34</sup> / 5 = 3435973836.8 = 0CCCCCCCC.CCC...(hexadecimal)<br>
+The fractional part is greater than a half: use case C.<br>
+Round f up to 0CCCCCCCDh.
+<p>
+The following code divides <kbd>EAX</kbd> by 5 and returns the result in <kbd>EDX</kbd>:
+<pre> MOV EDX,0CCCCCCCDh
+ MUL EDX
+ SHR EDX,2</pre>
+<p>
+After the multiplication, <kbd>EDX</kbd> contains the product shifted right
+32 places. Since r = 34 you have to shift 2 more places to get the result.
+To divide by 10 you just change the last line to <kbd>SHR EDX,3</kbd>.
+<p>
+In case B you would have:
+<pre> INC EAX
+ MOV EDX,f
+ MUL EDX
+ SHR EDX,b</pre>
+<p>
+This code works for all values of x except 0FFFFFFFFH which gives zero because of
+overflow in the <kbd>INC</kbd> instruction. If x = 0FFFFFFFFH is possible, then change the code to:
+<pre> MOV EDX,f
+ ADD EAX,1
+ JC DOVERFL
+ MUL EDX
+DOVERFL:SHR EDX,b</pre>
+<p>
+If the value of x is limited, then you may use a lower value of r, i.e.
+fewer digits. There can be several reasons to use a lower value of r:
+<ul>
+<li>you may set r = 32 to avoid the <kbd>SHR EDX,b</kbd> in the end.
+<li>you may set r = 16+b and use a multiplication instruction that
+gives a 32 bit result rather
+than 64 bits. This will free the <kbd>EDX</kbd> register:
+<pre> IMUL EAX,0CCCDh / SHR EAX,18</pre>
+<li>you may choose a value of r that gives case C rather than case
+B in order to avoid the <kbd>INC EAX</kbd> instruction
+</ul>
+<p>
+The maximum value for x in these cases is at least 2<sup>r-b</sup>,
+sometimes higher. You have to do a systematic test if you want to know the
+exact maximum value of x for which your code works correctly.
+<p>
+You may want to replace the slow multiplication instruction with faster instructions as
+explained in chapter <a href="#26"_5>26.5</a>.
+<p>
+The following example divides <kbd>EAX</kbd> by 10 and returns the result
+in <kbd>EAX</kbd>. I have chosen r=17 rather than 19 because it happens
+to give a code, which is easier to optimize, and covers
+the same range for x. f = 2<sup>17</sup> / 10 = 3333h, case B: q = (x+1)*3333h:
+<pre> LEA EBX,[EAX+2*EAX+3]
+ LEA ECX,[EAX+2*EAX+3]
+ SHL EBX,4
+ MOV EAX,ECX
+ SHL ECX,8
+ ADD EAX,EBX
+ SHL EBX,8
+ ADD EAX,ECX
+ ADD EAX,EBX
+ SHR EAX,17</pre>
+<p>
+A systematic test shows that this code works correctly for all x < 10004H.
+<p>
+<h4>Repeated integer division by the same value (all processors)</h4><p>
+If the divisor is not known at assembly time, but you are dividing
+repeatedly with the same divisor, then you may use the same method as above.
+The code has to distinguish between
+case A, B and C and calculate f before doing the divisions.
+<p>
+The code that follows shows how to do multiple divisions with the same divisor (unsigned
+division with truncation). First call <kbd>SET_DIVISOR</kbd> to specify the
+divisor and calculate the
+reciprocal, then call <kbd>DIVIDE_FIXED</kbd> for each value to divide by the same divisor.
+<pre>
+.data
+
+RECIPROCAL_DIVISOR DD ? ; rounded reciprocal divisor
+CORRECTION DD ? ; case A: -1, case B: 1, case C: 0
+BSHIFT DD ? ; number of bits in divisor - 1
+
+.code
+
+SET_DIVISOR PROC NEAR ; divisor in EAX
+ PUSH EBX
+ MOV EBX,EAX
+ BSR ECX,EAX ; b = number of bits in divisor - 1
+ MOV EDX,1
+ JZ ERROR ; error: divisor is zero
+ SHL EDX,CL ; 2^b
+ MOV [BSHIFT],ECX ; save b
+ CMP EAX,EDX
+ MOV EAX,0
+ JE SHORT CASE_A ; divisor is a power of 2
+ DIV EBX ; 2^(32+b) / d
+ SHR EBX,1 ; divisor / 2
+ XOR ECX,ECX
+ CMP EDX,EBX ; compare remainder with divisor/2
+ SETBE CL ; 1 if case B
+ MOV [CORRECTION],ECX ; correction for rounding errors
+ XOR ECX,1
+ ADD EAX,ECX ; add 1 if case C
+ MOV [RECIPROCAL_DIVISOR],EAX ; rounded reciprocal divisor
+ POP EBX
+ RET
+CASE_A: MOV [CORRECTION],-1 ; remember that we have case A
+ POP EBX
+ RET
+SET_DIVISOR ENDP
+
+DIVIDE_FIXED PROC NEAR ; dividend in EAX, result in EAX
+ MOV EDX,[CORRECTION]
+ MOV ECX,[BSHIFT]
+ TEST EDX,EDX
+ JS SHORT DSHIFT ; divisor is power of 2
+ ADD EAX,EDX ; correct for rounding error
+ JC SHORT DOVERFL ; correct for overflow
+ MUL [RECIPROCAL_DIVISOR] ; multiply with reciprocal divisor
+ MOV EAX,EDX
+DSHIFT: SHR EAX,CL ; adjust for number of bits
+ RET
+DOVERFL:MOV EAX,[RECIPROCAL_DIVISOR] ; dividend = 0FFFFFFFFH
+ SHR EAX,CL ; do division by shifting
+ RET
+DIVIDE_FIXED ENDP</pre><p>
+This code gives the same result as the <kbd>DIV</kbd> instruction for
+0 <= x < 2<sup>32</sup>, 0 < d < 2<sup>32</sup>.<br>
+Note: The line <kbd>JC DOVERFL</kbd> and its target are not needed if
+you are certain that x < 0FFFFFFFFH.
+<p>
+If powers of 2 occur so seldom that it is not worth optimizing for them,
+then you may leave out the jump to <kbd>DSHIFT</kbd> and instead do a
+multiplication with <kbd>CORRECTION</kbd> = 0 for case A.
+<p>
+If the divisor is changed so often that the procedure <kbd>SET_DIVISOR</kbd> needs optimizing, then you may
+replace the <kbd>BSR</kbd> instruction with the code given in chapter
+<a href="#26_15">26.15</a> for the PPlain and PMMX processors.
+<p>
+<h4>Floating point division (all processors)</h4><p>
+Floating point division takes 38 or 39 clock cycles for the highest precision.
+You can save time by specifying a lower precision in the floating point
+control word (On PPlain and PMMX, only <kbd>FDIV</kbd> and <kbd>FIDIV</kbd> are faster at low
+precision; on PPro, PII and PIII, this also applies
+to <kbd>FSQRT</kbd>. No other instructions can be speeded up this way).
+<p>
+<h4><a name="paralleldiv">Parallel division (PPlain and PMMX)</a></h4><p>
+On PPlain and PMMX, it is possible to do a floating point division and an integer division in
+parallel to save time. On PPro, PII and PIII this is not possible, because integer division and
+floating point division use the same circuitry.<br>
+Example: A = A1 / A2; B = B1 / B2
+<pre> FILD [B1]
+ FILD [B2]
+ MOV EAX, [A1]
+ MOV EBX, [A2]
+ CDQ
+ FDIV
+ DIV EBX
+ FISTP [B]
+ MOV [A], EAX</pre><p>
+(make sure you set the floating point control word to the desired rounding method)
+<p>
+<h4>Using reciprocal instruction for fast division (PIII)</h4><p>
+On PIII you can use the fast reciprocal instruction <kbd>RCPSS</kbd> or
+<kbd>RCPPS</kbd> on the divisor and then multiply with the dividend. However,
+the precision is only 12 bits. You can increase the precision to 23 bits by
+using the Newton-Raphson method described in Intel's application note AP-803:<br>
+x<sub>0</sub> = <kbd>RCPSS</kbd>(d)<br>
+x<sub>1</sub> = x<sub>0</sub> * (2 - d * x<sub>0</sub>)
+= 2*x<sub>0</sub> - d * x<sub>0</sub> * x<sub>0</sub><br>
+where x<sub>0</sub> is the first approximation to the reciprocal of the divisor, d,
+and x<sub>1</sub> is a better approximation. You must use this formula before
+multiplying with the dividend:
+<pre> MOVAPS XMM1, [DIVISORS] ; load divisors
+ RCPPS XMM0, XMM1 ; approximate reciprocal
+ MULPS XMM1, XMM0 ; Newton-Raphson formula
+ MULPS XMM1, XMM0
+ ADDPS XMM0, XMM0
+ SUBPS XMM0, XMM1
+ MULPS XMM0, [DIVIDENDS] ; results in XMM0</pre><p>
+This makes four divisions in 18 clock cycles with a precision of 23 bits.
+Increasing the precision further by repeating the Newton-Raphson formula
+in the floating point registers is possible, but not very advantageous.
+<p>
+If you want to use this method for integer divisions then you have to check for
+rounding errors. The following code makes four divisions with truncation on packed
+word size integers in approximately 42 clock cycles. It gives exact results for
+0 <= dividend < 7FFFFH and 0 < divisor <= 7FFFFH:
+<pre> MOVQ MM1, [DIVISORS] ; load four divisors
+ MOVQ MM2, [DIVIDENDS] ; load four dividends
+ PUNPCKHWD MM4, MM1 ; unpack divisors to DWORDs
+ PSRAD MM4, 16
+ PUNPCKLWD MM3, MM1
+ PSRAD MM3, 16
+ CVTPI2PS XMM1, MM4 ; convert divisors to float, upper two operands
+ MOVLHPS XMM1, XMM1
+ CVTPI2PS XMM1, MM3 ; convert lower two operands
+ PUNPCKHWD MM4, MM2 ; unpack dividends to DWORDs
+ PSRAD MM4, 16
+ PUNPCKLWD MM3, MM2
+ PSRAD MM3, 16
+ CVTPI2PS XMM2, MM4 ; convert dividends to float, upper two operands
+ MOVLHPS XMM2, XMM2
+ CVTPI2PS XMM2, MM3 ; convert lower two operands
+ RCPPS XMM0, XMM1 ; approximate reciprocal of divisors
+ MULPS XMM1, XMM0 ; improve precision with Newton-Raphson method
+ PCMPEQW MM4, MM4 ; make four integer 1's in the meantime
+ PSRLW MM4, 15
+ MULPS XMM1, XMM0
+ ADDPS XMM0, XMM0
+ SUBPS XMM0, XMM1 ; reciprocal divisors with 23 bit precision
+ MULPS XMM0, XMM2 ; multiply with dividends
+ CVTTPS2PI MM0, XMM0 ; truncate lower two results
+ MOVHLPS XMM0, XMM0
+ CVTTPS2PI MM3, XMM0 ; truncate upper two results
+ PACKSSDW MM0, MM3 ; pack the four results into MM0
+ MOVQ MM3, MM1 ; multiply results with divisors...
+ PMULLW MM3, MM0 ; to check for rounding errors
+ PADDSW MM0, MM4 ; add 1 to compensate for later subtraction
+ PADDSW MM3, MM1 ; add divisor. this should be > dividend
+ PCMPGTW MM3, MM2 ; check if too small
+ PADDSW MM0, MM3 ; subtract 1 if not too small
+ MOVQ [QUOTIENTS], MM0 ; save the four results</pre><p>
+This code checks if the result is too small and makes the appropriate
+correction. It is not necessary to check if the result is too big.
+<p>
+<h4>Avoiding divisions (all processors)</h4><p>
+Obviously, you should always try to minimize the number of divisions. Floating point division
+with a constant or repeated division with the same value should of course be done by
+multiplying with the reciprocal. But there are many other situations where you can reduce
+the number of divisions. For example:
+if (A/B > C)... can be rewritten as if (A > B*C)... when B is positive, and the opposite when
+B is negative.
+<p>
+A/B + C/D can be rewritten as (A*D + C*B) / (B*D)
+<p>
+If you are using integer division, then you should be aware that the rounding errors may be
+different when you rewrite the formulas.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_3">27.3 Freeing floating point registers (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+You have to free all used floating point registers before exiting a subroutine,
+except for any register used for the result.
+<p>
+The fastest way of freeing one register is <kbd>FSTP ST</kbd>.
+The fastest way of freeing two registers is <kbd>FCOMPP</kbd> on PPlain and PMMX;
+on PPro, PII and PIII you may use either
+<kbd>FCOMPP</kbd> or two times <kbd>FSTP ST</kbd>, whichever fits best into
+the decoding sequence.
+<p>
+It is not recommended to use <kbd>FFREE</kbd>.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_4">27.4 Transitions between floating point and MMX instructions (PMMX, PII and PIII)</a></h3><p>
+You must issue an <kbd>EMMS</kbd> instruction after your last MMX instruction if there
+is a possibility that floating point code follows later.
+<p>
+On PMMX there is a high penalty for switching between floating point and MMX
+instructions. The first floating point instruction after an
+<kbd>EMMS</kbd> takes approximately 58 clocks extra, and the first MMX instruction
+after a floating point instruction takes approximately 38 clocks extra.
+<p>
+On PII and PIII there is no such penalty. The delay after <kbd>EMMS</kbd>
+can be hidden by putting in integer
+instructions between <kbd>EMMS</kbd> and the first floating point instruction.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_5">27.5 Converting from floating point to integer (All processors)</a></h3><p>
+All conversions from floating point to integer, and vice versa, must go via a memory
+location:
+<pre> FISTP DWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ MOV EAX, [TEMP]</pre><p>
+On PPro, PII and PIII, this code is likely to have a penalty for attempting to
+read from <kbd>[TEMP]</kbd> before the write to <kbd>[TEMP]</kbd> is finished
+because the <kbd>FIST</kbd> instruction is slow (see chapter <a href="#17">17</a>).
+It doesn't help to put in a <kbd>WAIT</kbd> (see chapter <a href="#26_6">26.6</a>).
+It is recommended that you put in other instructions between the write to
+<kbd>[TEMP]</kbd> and the read from <kbd>[TEMP]</kbd> if possible in
+order to avoid this penalty. This applies to all the examples that follow.
+<p>
+The specifications for the C and C++ language requires that conversion
+from floating point
+numbers to integers use truncation rather than rounding. The method used by most C
+libraries is to change the floating point control word to indicate truncation before using an
+<kbd>FISTP</kbd> instruction and changing it back again afterwords. This method is very slow on all
+processors. On PPro, PII and PIII, the floating point control word cannot be renamed, so all
+subsequent floating point instructions must wait for the <kbd>FLDCW</kbd> instruction to retire.
+<p>
+Whenever you have a conversion from floating point to integer in C or C++, you should
+think of whether you can use rounding to nearest integer instead of truncation. If your
+standard library doesn't have a fast round function then make your own using the code
+examples listed below.
+<p>
+If you need truncation inside a loop then you should change the control word only outside
+the loop if the rest of the floating point instructions in the loop can work correctly in
+truncation mode.
+<p>
+You may use various tricks for truncating without changing the control word, as illustrated in
+the examples below. These examples presume that the control word is set to default, i.e.
+rounding to nearest or even.
+<p>
+<h4>Rounding to nearest or even</h4><p>
+<pre>; extern "C" int round (double x);
+_round PROC NEAR
+PUBLIC _round
+ FLD QWORD PTR [ESP+4]
+ FISTP DWORD PTR [ESP+4]
+ MOV EAX, DWORD PTR [ESP+4]
+ RET
+_round ENDP</pre>
+<p>
+<h4>Truncation towards zero</h4><p>
+<pre>; extern "C" int truncate (double x);
+_truncate PROC NEAR
+PUBLIC _truncate
+ FLD QWORD PTR [ESP+4] ; x
+ SUB ESP, 12 ; space for local variables
+ FIST DWORD PTR [ESP] ; rounded value
+ FST DWORD PTR [ESP+4] ; float value
+ FISUB DWORD PTR [ESP] ; subtract rounded value
+ FSTP DWORD PTR [ESP+8] ; difference
+ POP EAX ; rounded value
+ POP ECX ; float value
+ POP EDX ; difference (float)
+ TEST ECX, ECX ; test sign of x
+ JS SHORT NEGATIVE
+ ADD EDX, 7FFFFFFFH ; produce carry if difference < -0
+ SBB EAX, 0 ; subtract 1 if x-round(x) < -0
+ RET
+NEGATIVE:
+ XOR ECX, ECX
+ TEST EDX, EDX
+ SETG CL ; 1 if difference > 0
+ ADD EAX, ECX ; add 1 if x-round(x) > 0
+ RET
+_truncate ENDP</pre>
+<p>
+<h4>Truncation towards minus infinity</h4><p>
+<pre>; extern "C" int ifloor (double x);
+_ifloor PROC NEAR
+PUBLIC _ifloor
+ FLD QWORD PTR [ESP+4] ; x
+ SUB ESP, 8 ; space for local variables
+ FIST DWORD PTR [ESP] ; rounded value
+ FISUB DWORD PTR [ESP] ; subtract rounded value
+ FSTP DWORD PTR [ESP+4] ; difference
+ POP EAX ; rounded value
+ POP EDX ; difference (float)
+ ADD EDX, 7FFFFFFFH ; produce carry if difference < -0
+ SBB EAX, 0 ; subtract 1 if x-round(x) < -0
+ RET
+_ifloor ENDP</pre>
+<p>
+These procedures work for -2<sup>31</sup> < x < 2<sup>31</sup>-1.
+They do not check for overflow or NAN's.
+<p>
+The PIII has instructions for truncation of single precision floating point
+numbers: <kbd>CVTTSS2SI</kbd> and <kbd>CVTTPS2PI</kbd>. These instructions
+are very useful if the single precision is satisfactory, but if you are converting
+a float with higher precision to single precision in order to use these truncation
+instructions then you have the problem that the number may be rounded up in the
+conversion to single precision.
+<p>
+<h4>Alternative to FISTP instruction (PPlain and PMMX)</h4>
+<p>
+Converting a floating point number to integer is normally done like this:
+<pre> FISTP DWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ MOV EAX, [TEMP]</pre>
+<p>
+An alternative method is:
+<pre>.DATA
+ALIGN 8
+TEMP DQ ?
+MAGIC DD 59C00000H ; f.p. representation of 2^51 + 2^52
+
+.CODE
+ FADD [MAGIC]
+ FSTP QWORD PTR [TEMP]
+ MOV EAX, DWORD PTR [TEMP]</pre>
+<p>
+Adding the 'magic number' of 2<sup>51</sup> + 2<sup>52</sup> has the effect
+that any integer between -2<sup>31</sup> and +2<sup>31</sup>
+ will be aligned in the lower 32 bits when storing as a double precision floating
+point number. The result is the same as you get with <kbd>FISTP</kbd> for all rounding methods except
+truncation towards zero. The result is different from <kbd>FISTP</kbd> if the control word specifies
+truncation or in case of overflow. You may need a <kbd>WAIT</kbd> instruction for
+compatibility with the old 80287 processor, see chapter <a href="#26_6">26.6</a>.
+<p>
+This method is not faster than using <kbd>FISTP</kbd>, but it gives better
+scheduling opportunities on
+PPlain and PMMX because there is a 3 clock void between <kbd>FADD</kbd>
+ and <kbd>FSTP</kbd> which may be
+filled with other instrucions. You may multiply or divide the number by a
+power of 2 in the same operation by doing the opposite to the magic number.
+You may also add a constant by
+adding it to the magic number, which then has to be double precision.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_6">27.6 Using integer instructions to do floating point operations (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+Integer instructions are generally faster than floating point instructions, so it is often
+advantageous to use integer instructions for doing simple floating point operations. The
+most obvious example is moving data. Example:<br>
+<kbd> FLD QWORD PTR [ESI] / FSTP QWORD PTR [EDI]</kbd><br>
+Change to:<br>
+<kbd> MOV EAX,[ESI] / MOV EBX,[ESI+4] / MOV [EDI],EAX / MOV [EDI+4],EBX</kbd><br>
+<p>
+<h4>Testing if a floating point value is zero:</h4><p>
+The floating point value of zero is usually represented as 32 or 64 bits of zero, but there is a
+pitfall here: The sign bit may be set! Minus zero is regarded as a valid floating point number,
+and the processor may actually generate a zero with the sign bit set if for example
+multiplying a negative number with zero. So if you want to test if a floating point number is
+zero, you should not test the sign bit. Example:<br>
+<kbd> FLD DWORD PTR [EBX] / FTST / FNSTSW AX / AND AH,40H / JNZ IsZero</kbd><br>
+Use integer instructions instead, and shift out the sign bit:<br>
+<kbd> MOV EAX,[EBX] / ADD EAX,EAX / JZ IsZero</kbd><br>
+If the floating point number is double precision (QWORD) then you only have to
+test bit 32-62. If they are zero, then the lower half will also be zero if it is a normal floating point number.
+<p>
+<h4>Testing if negative:</h4><p>
+A floating point number is negative if the sign bit is set and at least one other bit is set.
+Example:<br>
+<kbd> MOV EAX,[NumberToTest] / CMP EAX,80000000H / JA IsNegative</kbd>
+<p>
+<h4>Manipulating the sign bit:</h4><p>
+You can change the sign of a floating point number simply by flipping the
+sign bit. Example:<br>
+<kbd> XOR BYTE PTR [a] + (TYPE a) - 1, 80H</kbd>
+<p>
+Likewise you may get the absolute value of a floating point number by simply ANDing out
+the sign bit.
+<p>
+<h4>Comparing numbers:</h4><p>
+Floating point numbers are stored in a unique format which allows you to use integer
+instructions for comparing floating point numbers, except for the sign bit. If you are certain
+that two floating point numbers both are normal and positive then you may simply compare
+them as integers. Example:<br>
+<kbd> FLD [a] / FCOMP [b] / FNSTSW AX / AND AH,1 / JNZ ASmallerThanB</kbd><br>
+Change to:<br>
+<kbd> MOV EAX,[a] / MOV EBX,[b] / CMP EAX,EBX / JB ASmallerThanB</kbd><br>
+This method only works if the two numbers have the same precision and you are certain
+that none of the numbers have the sign bit set.
+<p>
+If negative numbers are possible, then you have to convert the negative numbers to
+2-complement, and do a signed compare:
+<pre> MOV EAX, [a]
+ MOV EBX, [b]
+ MOV ECX, EAX
+ MOV EDX, EBX
+ SAR ECX, 31 ; copy sign bit
+ AND EAX, 7FFFFFFFH ; remove sign bit
+ SAR EDX, 31
+ AND EBX, 7FFFFFFFH
+ XOR EAX, ECX ; make 2-complement if sign bit was set
+ XOR EBX, EDX
+ SUB EAX, ECX
+ SUB EBX, EDX
+ CMP EAX, EBX
+ JL ASmallerThanB ; signed comparison</pre><p>
+This method works for all normal floating point numbers, including -0.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_7">27.7 Using floating point instructions to do integer operations (PPlain and PMMX)</a></h3><p>
+<h4>Integer multiplication (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+Floating point multiplication is faster than integer multiplication on the PPlain and PMMX,
+but the price for converting integer factors to float and converting the result back to integer
+is high, so floating point multiplication is only advantageous if the number of conversions
+needed is low compared with the number of multiplications. (It may be tempting to use
+denormal floating point operands to save some of the conversions here, but the handling of
+denormals is very slow, so this is not a good idea!)
+<p>
+On the PMMX, MMX multiplication instructions are faster than integer multiplication, and
+can be pipelined to a throughput of one multiplication per clock cycle, so this may be the
+best solution for doing fast multiplication on the PMMX, if you can live with 16 bit precision.
+<p>
+Integer multiplication is faster than floating point on PPro, PII and PIII.
+<p>
+<h4>Integer division (PPlain and PMMX)</h4><p>
+Floating point division is not faster than integer division, but you can do other integer
+operations (including integer division, but not integer multiplication) while the floating point
+unit is working on the division (See example <a href="#paralleldiv">above</a>).
+<p>
+<h4>Converting binary to decimal numbers (all processors)</h4><p>
+Using the <kbd>FBSTP</kbd> instruction is a simple and convenient way of converting a binary number
+to decimal, although not necessarily the fastest method.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_8">27.8 Moving blocks of data (all processors)</a></h3><p>
+There are several ways of moving blocks of data. The most common method is
+<kbd>REP MOVSD</kbd>, but under certain conditions other methods are faster.
+<p>
+On PPlain and PMMX it is faster to move 8 bytes at a time using floating
+point registers if the destination is not in the cache:
+<pre>TOP: FILD QWORD PTR [ESI]
+ FILD QWORD PTR [ESI+8]
+ FXCH
+ FISTP QWORD PTR [EDI]
+ FISTP QWORD PTR [EDI+8]
+ ADD ESI, 16
+ ADD EDI, 16
+ DEC ECX
+ JNZ TOP</pre>
+<p>
+The source and destination should of course be aligned by 8. The extra time used by the
+slow <kbd>FILD</kbd> and <kbd>FISTP</kbd> instructions is compensated for by the fact that you only have to do
+half as many write operations. Note that this method is only advantageous on the PPlain
+and PMMX and only if the destination is not in the level 1 cache. You cannot use
+<kbd>FLD</kbd> and <kbd>FSTP</kbd> (without <kbd>I</kbd>) on arbitrary bit patterns because denormal numbers
+are handled slowly and certain bit patterns are not preserved unchanged.
+<p>
+On the PMMX processor it is faster to use MMX instructions to move eight bytes
+at a time if the destination is not in the cache:
+<pre>TOP: MOVQ MM0,[ESI]
+ MOVQ [EDI],MM0
+ ADD ESI,8
+ ADD EDI,8
+ DEC ECX
+ JNZ TOP</pre>
+<p>
+There is no need to unroll this loop or optimize it further if cache misses are expected,
+because memory access is the bottleneck here, not instruction execution.
+<p>
+On PPro, PII and PIII processors the <kbd>REP MOVSD</kbd> instruction is particularly
+fast when the following conditions are met (see chapter <a href="#26_3">26.3</a>):
+<ul>
+<li>both source and destination must be aligned by 8
+<li>direction must be forward (direction flag cleared)
+<li>the count (<kbd>ECX</kbd>) must be greater than or equal to 64
+<li>the difference between <kbd>EDI</kbd> and <kbd>ESI</kbd> must be numerically greater than or equal to 32
+<li>the memory type for both source and destination must be either writeback or
+write-combining (you can normally assume this).
+</ul>
+<p>
+On the PII it is faster to use MMX registers if the above conditions are not met
+and the destination is likely to be in the level 1 cache. The loop may be rolled
+out by two, and the source and destination should of course be aligned by 8.
+<p>
+On the PIII the fastest way of moving data is to use the <kbd>MOVAPS</kbd>
+instruction if the above conditions are not met or if the destination is in
+the level 1 or level 2 cache:
+<pre> SUB EDI, ESI
+TOP: MOVAPS XMM0, [ESI]
+ MOVAPS [ESI+EDI], XMM0
+ ADD ESI, 16
+ DEC ECX
+ JNZ TOP</pre><p>
+Unlike <kbd>FLD</kbd>, <kbd>MOVAPS</kbd> can handle any bit pattern without
+problems. Remember that source and destination must be aligned by 16.
+<p>
+If the number of bytes to move is not divisible by 16 then you may round up
+to the nearest number divisible by 16 and put some extra space at the end of
+the destination buffer to receive the superfluous bytes. If this is not possible
+then you have to move the remaining bytes by other methods.
+<p>
+On the PIII you also have the option of writing directly to RAM memory without
+involving the cache by using the <kbd>MOVNTQ</kbd> or <kbd>MOVNTPS</kbd>
+instruction. This can be useful if you don't want the destination to go into
+a cache. <kbd>MOVNTPS</kbd> is only slightly faster than <kbd>MOVNTQ</kbd>.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_9">27.9 Self-modifying code (All processors)</a></h3><p>
+The penalty for executing a piece of code immediately after modifying it is approximately 19
+clocks for PPlain, 31 for PMMX, and 150-300 for PPro, PII and PIII. The 80486 and earlier
+processors require a jump between the modifying and the modified code in order to flush
+the code cache.
+<p>
+To get permission to modify code in a protected operating system you need to call special
+system functions: In 16-bit Windows call ChangeSelector, in 32-bit Windows call
+VirtualProtect and FlushInstructionCache (or put the code in a data segment).
+<p>
+Self-modifying code is not considered good programming practice, but it may be justified if
+the gain in speed is considerable.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="27_10">27.10 Detecting processor type (All processors)</a></h3><p>
+I think it is fairly obvious by now that what is optimal for one microprocessor may not be
+optimal for another. You may make the most critical parts of you program in different
+versions, each optimized for a specific microprocessor and selecting the desired version at
+run time after detecting which microprocessor the program is running on. If you are using
+instructions that are not supported by all microprocessors (i.e. conditional
+moves, <kbd>FCOMI</kbd>, MMX and XMM instructions) then you must first check if the program is running on a microprocessor
+that supports these instructions. The subroutine below checks the type of microprocessor
+and the features supported.
+<p>
+<pre>; define CPUID instruction if not known by assembler:
+CPUID MACRO
+ DB 0FH, 0A2H
+ENDM
+
+; C++ prototype:
+; extern "C" long int DetectProcessor (void);
+
+; return value:
+; bits 8-11 = family (5 for PPlain and PMMX, 6 for PPro, PII and PIII)
+; bit 0 = floating point instructions supported
+; bit 15 = conditional move and FCOMI instructions supported
+; bit 23 = MMX instructions supported
+; bit 25 = XMM instructions supported
+
+_DetectProcessor PROC NEAR
+PUBLIC _DetectProcessor
+ PUSH EBX
+ PUSH ESI
+ PUSH EDI
+ PUSH EBP
+ ; detect if CPUID instruction supported by microprocessor:
+ PUSHFD
+ POP EAX
+ MOV EBX, EAX
+ XOR EAX, 1 SHL 21 ; check if CPUID bit can toggle
+ PUSH EAX
+ POPFD
+ PUSHFD
+ POP EAX
+ XOR EAX, EBX
+ AND EAX, 1 SHL 21
+ JZ SHORT DPEND ; CPUID instruction not supported
+ XOR EAX, EAX
+ CPUID ; get number of CPUID functions
+ TEST EAX, EAX
+ JZ SHORT DPEND ; CPUID function 1 not supported
+ MOV EAX, 1
+ CPUID ; get family and features
+ AND EAX, 000000F00H ; family
+ AND EDX, 0FFFFF0FFH ; features flags
+ OR EAX, EDX ; combine bits
+DPEND: POP EBP
+ POP EDI
+ POP ESI
+ POP EBX
+ RET
+_DetectProcessor ENDP</pre>
+<p>
+Note that some operating systems do not allow XMM instructions.
+Information on how to check for operating system support of XMM instructions can
+be found in Intel's application note AP-900: "Identifying support for Streaming
+SIMD Extensions in the Processor and Operating System".
+More information on microprocessor identification can be found in Intel's
+application note AP-485: "Intel Processor Identification and the CPUID Instruction".
+<p>
+To code the conditional move, MMX, XMM instructions etc. on an assembler that doesn't have
+these instructions use the macros at <a href="http://www.agner.org/assem/macros.zip">www.agner.org/assem/macros.zip</a>
+<p>
+<h2><a name="28">28</a>. List of instruction timings for PPlain and PMMX</h2>
+<h3><a name="28_1">28.1 Integer instructions</a></h3><p>
+<b>Explanations:</b><br>
+<u>Operands:</u><br>
+r = register, m = memory, i = immediate data, sr = segment register<br>
+m32 = 32 bit memory operand, etc.
+<p>
+<u>Clock cycles:</u><br>
+The numbers are minimum values. Cache misses, misalignment, and exceptions may
+increase the clock counts considerably.
+<p>
+<u>Pairability:</u><br>
+u = pairable in u-pipe, v = pairable in v-pipe, uv = pairable in either pipe,
+np = not pairable.
+<p>
+
+<table border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=1>
+<tr><td class="a3"> Instruction </td>
+<td class="a3"> Operands </td>
+<td class="a3"> Clock cycles </td>
+<td class="a3"> Pairability </td></tr>
+<tr><td>NOP</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>r/m, r/m/i</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>r/m, sr</td><td>1</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>sr , r/m</td><td>>= 2 b)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>m , accum</td><td>1</td><td>uv h)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>XCHG</td><td>(E)AX, r</td><td>2</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>XCHG</td><td>r , r</td><td>3</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>XCHG</td><td>r , m</td><td>>15</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>XLAT</td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSH</td><td>r/i</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>POP</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSH</td><td>m</td><td>2</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>POP</td><td>m</td><td>3</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSH</td><td>sr</td><td>1 b)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>POP</td><td>sr</td><td>>= 3 b)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSHF</td><td> </td><td>3-5</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>POPF</td><td> </td><td>4-6</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSHA POPA</td><td> </td><td>5-9 i)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSHAD POPAD</td><td> </td><td>5</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>LAHF SAHF</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVSX MOVZX</td><td>r , r/m</td><td>3 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>LEA</td><td>r , m</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>LDS LES LFS LGS LSS</td><td>m</td><td>4 c)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADD SUB AND OR XOR</td><td>r , r/i</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADD SUB AND OR XOR</td><td>r , m</td><td>2</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADD SUB AND OR XOR</td><td>m , r/i</td><td>3</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADC SBB</td><td>r , r/i</td><td>1</td><td>u</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADC SBB</td><td>r , m</td><td>2</td><td>u</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADC SBB</td><td>m , r/i</td><td>3</td><td>u</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMP</td><td>r , r/i</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMP</td><td>m , r/i</td><td>2</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>TEST</td><td>r , r</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>TEST</td><td>m , r</td><td>2</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>TEST</td><td>r , i</td><td>1</td><td>f)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>TEST</td><td>m , i</td><td>2</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>INC DEC</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>INC DEC</td><td>m</td><td>3</td><td>uv</td></tr>
+<tr><td>NEG NOT</td><td>r/m</td><td>1/3</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MUL IMUL</td><td>r8/r16/m8/m16</td><td>11</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MUL IMUL</td><td>all other versions</td><td>9 d)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV</td><td>r8/m8</td><td>17</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV</td><td>r16/m16</td><td>25</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV</td><td>r32/m32</td><td>41</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>IDIV</td><td>r8/m8</td><td>22</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>IDIV</td><td>r16/m16</td><td>30</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>IDIV</td><td>r32/m32</td><td>46</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CBW CWDE</td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CWD CDQ</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHR SHL SAR SAL</td><td>r , i</td><td>1</td><td>u</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHR SHL SAR SAL</td><td>m , i</td><td>3</td><td>u</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHR SHL SAR SAL</td><td>r/m, CL</td><td>4/5</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ROR ROL RCR RCL</td><td>r/m, 1</td><td>1/3</td><td>u</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ROR ROL</td><td>r/m, i(><1)</td><td>1/3</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ROR ROL</td><td>r/m, CL</td><td>4/5</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>r/m, i(><1)</td><td>8/10</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>r/m, CL</td><td>7/9</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHLD SHRD</td><td>r, i/CL</td><td>4 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHLD SHRD</td><td>m, i/CL</td><td>5 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BT</td><td>r, r/i</td><td>4 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BT</td><td>m, i</td><td>4 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BT</td><td>m, i</td><td>9 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BTR BTS BTC</td><td>r, r/i</td><td>7 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BTR BTS BTC</td><td>m, i</td><td>8 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BTR BTS BTC</td><td>m, r</td><td>14 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BSF BSR</td><td>r , r/m</td><td>7-73 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SETcc</td><td>r/m</td><td>1/2 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>JMP CALL</td><td>short/near</td><td>1 e)</td><td>v</td></tr>
+<tr><td>JMP CALL</td><td>far</td><td>>= 3 e)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>conditional jump</td><td>short/near</td><td>1/4/5/6 e)</td><td>v</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CALL JMP</td><td>r/m</td><td>2/5 e</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETN</td><td> </td><td>2/5 e</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETN</td><td>i</td><td>3/6 e)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETF</td><td> </td><td>4/7 e)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETF</td><td>i</td><td>5/8 e)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>J(E)CXZ</td><td>short</td><td>4-11 e)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>LOOP</td><td>short</td><td>5-10 e)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BOUND</td><td>r , m</td><td>8</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CLC STC CMC CLD STD</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CLI STI</td><td> </td><td>6-9</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>LODS</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP LODS</td><td> </td><td>7+3*n g)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>STOS</td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP STOS</td><td> </td><td>10+n g)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVS</td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP MOVS</td><td> </td><td>12+n g)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SCAS</td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP(N)E SCAS</td><td> </td><td>9+4*n g)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMPS</td><td> </td><td>5</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP(N)E CMPS</td><td> </td><td>8+4*n g)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BSWAP</td><td> </td><td>1 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CPUID</td><td> </td><td>13-16 a)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RDTSC</td><td> </td><td>6-13 a) j)</td><td>np</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<b>Notes:</b><br>
+a) this instruction has a <kbd>0FH</kbd> prefix which takes one clock cycle extra to
+ decode on a PPlain unless preceded by a multicycle instruction (see
+ chapter <a href="#12">12</a>).<br>
+b) versions with <kbd>FS</kbd> and <kbd>GS</kbd> have a <kbd>0FH</kbd>
+ prefix. see note a.<br>
+c) versions with <kbd>SS, FS</kbd>, and <kbd>GS</kbd> have a <kbd>0FH</kbd> prefix. see note a.<br>
+d) versions with two operands and no immediate have a <kbd>0FH</kbd> prefix, see note a.<br>
+e) see chapter <a href="#22">22</a><br>
+f) only pairable if register is accumulator. see chapter <a href="#26_14">26.14</a>.<br>
+g) add one clock cycle for decoding the repeat prefix unless preceded by a
+ multicycle instruction (such as <kbd>CLD</kbd>. see chapter <a href="#12">12</a>).<br>
+h) pairs as if it were writing to the accumulator. see chapter <a href="#26_14">26.14</a>.<br>
+i) 9 if <kbd>SP</kbd> divisible by 4. <a href="#imperfectpush">See 10.2</a><br>
+j) on PPlain: 6 in priviledged or real mode, 11 in nonpriviledged, error in
+ virtual mode. On PMMX: 8 and 13 clocks respectively.<br>
+<p>
+<h3><a name="28_2">28.2 Floating point instructions</a></h3><p>
+<p>
+<b>Explanations:</b><br>
+<u>Operands:</u><br>
+r = register, m = memory, m32 = 32 bit memory operand, etc.
+<p>
+<u>Clock cycles:</u><br>
+The numbers are minimum values. Cache misses, misalignment, denormal operands, and
+exceptions may increase the clock counts considerably.
+<p>
+<u>Pairability:</u><br>
++ = pairable with <kbd>FXCH</kbd>, np = not pairable with <kbd>FXCH</kbd>.
+<p>
+<u>i-ov:</u><br>
+Overlap with integer instructions. i-ov = 4 means that the last four clock cycles can overlap
+with subsequent integer instructions.
+<p>
+<u>fp-ov:</u><br>
+Overlap with floating point instructions. fp-ov = 2 means that the last two clock cycles can
+overlap with subsequent floating point instructions.
+(<kbd>WAIT</kbd> is considered a floating point instruction here)<p>
+
+<table border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=1>
+<tr><td class="a3"> Instruction </td>
+<td class="a3"> Operand </td>
+<td class="a3"> Clock cycles </td>
+<td class="a3"> Pairability </td>
+<td class="a3"> i-ov </td>
+<td class="a3"> fp-ov </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLD</td><td>r/m32/m64</td><td>1</td><td>+</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLD</td><td>m80</td><td>3</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FBLD</td><td>m80</td><td>48-58</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FST(P)</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FST(P)</td><td>m32/m64</td><td>2 m)</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FST(P)</td><td>m80</td><td>3 m)</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FBSTP</td><td>m80</td><td>148-154</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FILD</td><td>m</td><td>3</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIST(P)</td><td>m</td><td>6</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLDZ FLD1</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLDPI FLDL2E etc.</td><td> </td><td>5 s)</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNSTSW</td><td>AX/m16</td><td>6 q)</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLDCW</td><td>m16</td><td>8</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNSTCW</td><td>m16</td><td>2</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FADD(P)</td><td>r/m</td><td>3</td><td>+</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSUB(R)(P)</td><td>r/m</td><td>3</td><td>+</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FMUL(P)</td><td>r/m</td><td>3</td><td>+</td><td>2</td><td>2 n)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FDIV(R)(P)</td><td>r/m</td><td>19/33/39 p)</td><td>+</td><td>38 o)</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCHS FABS</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>+</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCOM(P)(P) FUCOM</td><td>r/m</td><td>1</td><td>+</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIADD FISUB(R)</td><td>m</td><td>6</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIMUL</td><td>m</td><td>6</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIDIV(R)</td><td>m</td><td>22/36/42 p)</td><td>np</td><td>38 o)</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FICOM</td><td>m</td><td>4</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FTST</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXAM</td><td> </td><td>17-21</td><td>np</td><td>4</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPREM</td><td> </td><td>16-64</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPREM1</td><td> </td><td>20-70</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FRNDINT</td><td> </td><td>9-20</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSCALE</td><td> </td><td>20-32</td><td>np</td><td>5</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXTRACT</td><td> </td><td>12-66</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSQRT</td><td> </td><td>70</td><td>np</td><td>69 o)</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSIN FCOS</td><td> </td><td>65-100 r)</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSINCOS</td><td> </td><td>89-112 r)</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>F2XM1</td><td> </td><td>53-59 r)</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FYL2X</td><td> </td><td>103 r)</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FYL2XP1</td><td> </td><td>105 r)</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPTAN</td><td> </td><td>120-147 r)</td><td>np</td><td>36 o)</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPATAN</td><td> </td><td>112-134 r)</td><td>np</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNOP</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXCH</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FINCSTP FDECSTP</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FFREE</td><td>r</td><td>2</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNCLEX</td><td> </td><td>6-9</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNINIT</td><td> </td><td>12-22</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNSAVE</td><td>m</td><td>124-300</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FRSTOR</td><td>m</td><td>70-95</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>WAIT</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>np</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<b>Notes:</b><br>
+m) The value to store is needed one clock cycle in advance.<br>
+n) 1 if the overlapping instruction is also an <kbd>FMUL</kbd>.<br>
+o) Cannot overlap integer multiplication instructions.<br>
+p) <kbd>FDIV</kbd> takes 19, 33, or 39 clock cycles for 24, 53, and 64 bit precision
+respectively. <kbd>FIDIV</kbd> takes 3 clocks more. The precision is defined by bit
+8-9 of the floating point control word.<br>
+q) The first 4 clock cycles can overlap with preceding integer instructions.
+See chapter <a href="#26_7">26.7</a>.<br>
+r) clock counts are typical. Trivial cases may be faster, extreme cases may
+be slower.<br>
+s) may be up to 3 clocks more when output needed for <kbd>FST</kbd>,
+<kbd>FCHS</kbd>, or <kbd>FABS</kbd>.
+<p>
+<h3><a name="28_3">28.3 MMX instructions (PMMX)</a></h3><p>
+<p>
+A list of MMX instruction timings is not needed because they all take one clock cycle,
+except the MMX multiply instructions which take 3. MMX multiply instructions can be
+overlapped and pipelined to yield a throughput of one multiplication per clock cycle.
+<p>
+The <kbd>EMMS</kbd> instruction takes only one clock cycle, but the first floating point instruction after
+an <kbd>EMMS</kbd> takes approximately 58 clocks extra, and the first MMX instruction after a floating
+point instruction takes approximately 38 clocks extra. There is no penalty for an MMX
+instruction after <kbd>EMMS</kbd> on the PMMX (but a possible small penalty on the PII and PIII).
+<p>
+There is no penalty for using a memory operand in an MMX instruction because the MMX
+arithmetic unit is one step later in the pipeline than the load unit. But the penalty comes
+when you store data from an MMX register to memory or to a 32 bit register: The data have
+to be ready one clock cycle in advance. This is analogous to the floating point store
+instructions.
+<p>
+All MMX instructions except <kbd>EMMS</kbd> are pairable in either pipe. Pairing rules for MMX
+instructions are described in chapter <a href="#10">10</a>.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="29">29</a>. List of instruction timings and micro-op breakdown for PPro, PII and PIII</h2><p>
+<b>Explanations:</b><br>
+<u>Operands:</u><br>
+r = register, m = memory, i = immediate data, sr = segment register,
+m32 = 32 bit memory operand, etc.
+<p>
+<u>Micro-ops:</u><br>
+The number of micro-ops that the instruction generates for each execution port.<br>
+p0: port 0: ALU, etc.<br>
+p1: port 1: ALU, jumps<br>
+p01: instructions that can go to either port 0 or 1, whichever is vacant first.<br>
+p2: port 2: load data, etc.<br>
+p3: port 3: address generation for store<br>
+p4: port 4: store data
+<p>
+<u>Delay:</u><br>
+This is the delay that the instruction generates in a dependency chain.
+(This is not the same as the time spent in the execution unit. Values may be
+inaccurate in situations where they cannot be measured exactly, especially with
+memory operands).
+The numbers are minimum values. Cache misses, misalignment, and exceptions
+may increase the clock counts considerably. Floating point operands are
+presumed to be normal numbers. Denormal numbers, NANs and infinity increase
+the delays by 50-150 clocks, except in XMM move, shuffle and boolean instructions.
+Floating point overflow, underflow, denormal or NAN results give a similar delay.
+<p>
+<u>Throughput:</u><br>
+The maximum throughput for several instructions of the same kind. For example, a
+throughput of 1/2 for <kbd>FMUL</kbd> means that a new <kbd>FMUL</kbd> instruction can start executing
+every 2 clock cycles.<p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="a2"><a name="29_1">29.1 Integer instructions</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="a3">Instruction</td>
+<td class="a3">Operands</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="a3">micro-ops</td>
+<td class="a3">delay</td>
+<td class="a3">throughput</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="a3">p0</td><td class="a3">p1</td>
+<td class="a3">p01</td><td class="a3">p2</td><td class="a3">p3</td><td class="a3">p4</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>NOP</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>r,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>r,m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>m,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>r,sr</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>m,sr</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>sr,r</td><td colspan="3">8</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>5</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOV</td><td>sr,m</td><td colspan="3">7</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>8</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVSX MOVZX</td><td>r,r</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVSX MOVZX</td><td>r,m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMOVcc</td><td>r,r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMOVcc</td><td>r,m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>XCHG</td><td>r,r</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>XCHG</td><td>r,m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>high b)</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>XLAT</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSH</td><td>r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>POP</td><td>r</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>POP</td><td>(E)SP</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSH</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>POP</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>5</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSH</td><td>sr</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>POP</td><td>sr</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>8</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSHF(D)</td><td> </td><td>3</td><td> </td><td>11</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>POPF(D)</td><td> </td><td>10</td><td> </td><td>6</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PUSHA(D)</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>POPA(D)</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td>8</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>LAHF SAHF</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>LEA</td><td>r,m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1 c)</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>LDS LES LFS LGS LSS</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>8</td>
+<td>3</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADD SUB AND OR XOR</td><td>r,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADD SUB AND OR XOR</td><td>r,m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADD SUB AND OR XOR</td><td>m,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADC SBB</td><td>r,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADC SBB</td><td>r,m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADC SBB</td><td>m,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMP TEST</td><td>r,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMP TEST</td><td>m,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>INC DEC NEG NOT</td><td>r</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>INC DEC NEG NOT</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>AAS DAA DAS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>AAD</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>AAM</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>15</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MUL IMUL</td><td>r,(r),(i)</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MUL IMUL</td><td>(r),m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV IDIV</td><td>r8</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>19</td><td>1/12</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV IDIV</td><td>r16</td><td>3</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>23</td><td>1/21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV IDIV</td><td>r32</td><td>3</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>39</td><td>1/37</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV IDIV</td><td>m8</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>19</td><td>1/12</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV IDIV</td><td>m16</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>23</td><td>1/21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIV IDIV</td><td>m32</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>39</td><td>1/37</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CBW CWDE</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CWD CDQ</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHR SHL SAR ROR ROL</td><td>r,i/CL</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHR SHL SAR ROR ROL</td><td>m,i/CL</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>r,1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>r8,i/CL</td><td>4</td><td> </td><td>4</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>r16/32,i/CL</td><td>3</td><td> </td><td>3</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>m,1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>m8,i/CL</td><td>4</td><td> </td><td>3</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCR RCL</td><td>m16/32,i/CL</td><td>4</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHLD SHRD</td><td>r,r,i/CL</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHLD SHRD</td><td>m,r,i/CL</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BT</td><td>r,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BT</td><td>m,r/i</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>6</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BTR BTS BTC</td><td>r,r/i</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BTR BTS BTC</td><td>m,r/i</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>6</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BSF BSR</td><td>r,r</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BSF BSR</td><td>r,m</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SETcc</td><td>r</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SETcc</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>JMP</td><td>short/near</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>JMP</td><td>far</td><td colspan="3">21</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>JMP</td><td>r</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>JMP</td><td>m(near)</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>JMP</td><td>m(far)</td><td colspan="3">21</td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>conditional jump</td><td>short/near</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CALL</td><td>near</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CALL</td><td>far</td><td colspan="3">28</td>
+<td>1</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CALL</td><td>r</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CALL</td><td>m(near)</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>4</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CALL</td><td>m (far)</td><td colspan="3">28</td>
+<td>2</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETN</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>2</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETN</td><td>i</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>3</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETF</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">23</td>
+<td>3</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RETF</td><td>i</td><td colspan="3">23</td><td>3</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>J(E)CXZ</td><td>short</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>LOOP</td><td>short</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>8</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>LOOP(N)E</td><td>short</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>8</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ENTER</td><td>i,0</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>12</td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>ENTER</td><td>a,b</td><td colspan="3">ca. 18+4b</td><td> </td>
+<td>b-1</td><td>2b</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>LEAVE</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BOUND</td><td>r,m</td><td>7</td><td> </td><td>6</td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CLC STC CMC</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CLD STD</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CLI</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">9</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>STI</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">17</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>INTO</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>5</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>LODS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP LODS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td colspan="2">10+6n</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>STOS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP STOS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td colspan="4">ca. 5n a)</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>3</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP MOVS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td colspan="4">ca. 6n a)</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SCAS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP(N)E SCAS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td colspan="2">12+7n</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMPS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>REP(N)E CMPS</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td colspan="2">12+9n</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>BSWAP</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>CPUID</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">23-48</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>RDTSC</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">31</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>IN</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">18</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>>300</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>OUT</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">18</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>>300</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PREFETCHNTA d)</td><td>m</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td>
+ </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PREFETCHT0 d)</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PREFETCHT1 d)</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>PREFETCHT2 d)</td><td>m</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td>
+ </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>SFENCE d)</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td>
+ 1</td><td> </td><td>1/6</td></tr>
+</TABLE><p>
+<b>Notes:</b><br>
+a) faster under certain conditions: see chapter <a href="#26_3">26.3</a>.<br>
+b) see chapter <a href="#26_1">26.1</a><br>
+c) 3 if constant without base or index register<br>
+d) PIII only.
+<p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="a2"><a name="29_2">29.2 Floating point instructions</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="a3">Instruction</td>
+<td class="a3">Operands</td>
+<td colspan="6" align="center" class="a3">micro-ops</td>
+<td class="a3">delay</td>
+<td class="a3">throughput</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td> </td>
+<td> </td>
+<td class="a4">p0</td>
+<td class="a4">p1</td>
+<td class="a4">p01</td>
+<td class="a4">p2</td>
+<td class="a4">p3</td>
+<td class="a4">p4</td>
+<td> </td>
+<td> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>FLD</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLD</td><td>m32/64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLD</td><td>m80</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FBLD</td><td>m80</td><td>38</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FST(P)</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FST(P)</td><td>m32/m64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSTP</td><td>m80</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FBSTP</td><td>m80</td><td>165</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXCH</td><td>r</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>0</td><td>3/1 f)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FILD</td><td>m</td><td>3</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>5</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIST(P)</td><td>m</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>5</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLDZ</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">FLD1 FLDPI FLDL2E etc.</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCMOVcc</td><td>r</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNSTSW</td><td>AX</td><td>3</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>7</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNSTSW</td><td>m16</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FLDCW</td><td>m16</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>10</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNSTCW</td><td>m16</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FADD(P) FSUB(R)(P)</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FADD(P) FSUB(R)(P)</td><td>m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3-4</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FMUL(P)</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>5</td><td>1/2 g)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FMUL(P)</td><td>m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>5-6</td><td>1/2 g)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FDIV(R)(P)</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>38 h)</td><td>1/37</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FDIV(R)(P)</td><td>m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>38 h)</td><td>1/37</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FABS</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCHS</td><td> </td><td>3</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCOM(P) FUCOM</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCOM(P) FUCOM</td><td>m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCOMPP FUCOMPP</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCOMI(P) FUCOMI(P)</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FCOMI(P) FUCOMI(P)</td><td>m</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIADD FISUB(R)</td><td>m</td><td>6</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIMUL</td><td>m</td><td>6</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIDIV(R)</td><td>m</td><td>6</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FICOM(P)</td><td>m</td><td>6</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FTST</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXAM</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPREM</td><td> </td><td>23</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPREM1</td><td> </td><td>33</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FRNDINT</td><td> </td><td>30</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSCALE</td><td> </td><td>56</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXTRACT</td><td> </td><td>15</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSQRT</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>69</td><td>e,i)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSIN FCOS</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">17-97</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>27-103</td><td>e)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FSINCOS</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">18-110</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>29-130</td><td>e)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>F2XM1</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">17-48</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td>66</td><td>e)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FYL2X</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">36-54</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>103</td><td>e)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FYL2XP1</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">31-53</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>98-107</td><td>e)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPTAN</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">21-102</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>13-143</td><td>e)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FPATAN</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">25-86</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>44-143</td><td>e)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNOP</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FINCSTP FDECSTP</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FFREE</td><td>r</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FFREEP</td><td>r</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNCLEX</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNINIT</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">13</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FNSAVE</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">141</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FRSTOR</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">72</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>WAIT</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Notes:</b><br>
+e) not pipelined<br>
+f) <kbd>FXCH</kbd> generates 1 micro-op that is resolved by register renaming without
+ going to any port.<br>
+g) <kbd>FMUL</kbd> uses the same circuitry as integer multiplication. Therefore, the
+ combined throughput of mixed floating point and integer multiplications is
+ 1 <kbd>FMUL</kbd> + 1 <kbd>IMUL</kbd> per 3 clock cycles.<br>
+h) <kbd>FDIV</kbd> delay depends on precision specified in control word:
+ precision 64 bits gives delay 38, precision 53 bits gives delay 32,
+ precision 24 bits gives delay 18. Division by a power of 2 takes 9 clocks.
+ Throughput is 1/(delay-1).<br>
+i) faster for lower precision.
+<p>
+
+<table border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=1><tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="a2"><a name="29_3">29.3 MMX instructions (PII and PIII)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="a3">Instruction</td>
+<td class="a3">Operands</td>
+<td colspan="6" align="center" class="a3">micro-ops</td>
+<td class="a3">delay</td>
+<td class="a3">throughput</td></tr>
+<tr><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td class="a4">p0</td><td class="a4">p1</td><td class="a4">p01</td>
+<td class="a4">p2</td><td class="a4">p3</td><td class="a4">p4</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVD MOVQ</td><td>r,r</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVD MOVQ</td><td>r64,m32/64</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVD MOVQ</td><td>m32/64,r64</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>
+1</td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PADD PSUB PCMP</td><td>r64,r64</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PADD PSUB PCMP</td><td>r64,m64</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMUL PMADD</td><td>r64,r64</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMUL PMADD</td><td>r64,m64</td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PAND PANDN POR <br>PXOR</td>
+<td>r64,r64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PAND PANDN POR<br>PXOR</td><td>r64,m64</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PSRA PSRL PSLL</td><td>r64,r64/i</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PSRA PSRL PSLL</td><td>r64,m64</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PACK PUNPCK</td><td>r64,r64</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PACK PUNPCK</td><td>r64,m64</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>EMMS</td><td> </td><td colspan="3">11</td><td> </td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td>6 k)</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MASKMOVQ d)</td><td>r64,r64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td>
+<td> 1</td><td> 1</td><td>2-8</td><td>1/30-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMOVMSKB d)</td><td>r32,r64</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVNTQ d)</td><td>m64,r64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> 1</td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td>1/30-1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PSHUFW d)</td><td>r64,r64,i</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PSHUFW d)</td><td>r64,m64,i</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> 1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 2</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PEXTRW d)</td><td>r32,r64,i</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 2</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PISRW d)</td><td>r64,r32,i</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PISRW d)</td><td>r64,m16,i</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> 1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 2</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PAVGB PAVGW d)</td><td>r64,r64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 2/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PAVGB PAVGW d)</td><td>r64,m64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 2</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMINUB PMAXUB PMINSW PMAXSW d)</td><td>r64,r64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 2/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMINUB PMAXUB PMINSW PMAXSW d)</td><td>r64,m64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 2</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMULHUW d)</td><td>r64,r64</td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 3</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PMULHUW d)</td><td>r64,m64</td><td> 1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 4</td><td> 1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PSADBW d)</td><td>r64,r64</td><td> 2</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 5</td><td> 1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PSADBW d)</td><td>r64,m64</td><td> 2</td><td> </td><td> 1</td><td> 1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> 6</td><td> 1/2</td></tr>
+</table><p>
+<b>Notes:</b><br>
+d) PIII only.<br>
+k) you may hide the delay by inserting other instructions between <kbd>EMMS</kbd> and any
+subsequent floating point instruction.
+<p>
+<table border="1" callpadding="4" cellspacing="1"><tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="a2"><a name="29_4">29.4 XMM instructions (PIII)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="a3">Instruction</td>
+<td class="a3">Operands</td>
+<td colspan="6" align="center" class="a3">micro-ops</td>
+<td class="a3">delay</td>
+<td class="a3">throughput</td></tr>
+<tr><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td class="a4"> p0 </td><td class="a4"> p1 </td>
+<td class="a4"> p01 </td><td class="a4"> p2 </td>
+<td class="a4"> p3 </td><td class="a4"> p4 </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVAPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVAPS</td><td>r128,m128</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>
+</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVAPS</td><td>m128,r128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVUPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVUPS</td><td>m128,r128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td>
+<td>4</td><td>3</td><td>1/4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVSS</td><td>m32,r128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVHPS MOVLPS</td><td>r128,m64</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVHPS MOVLPS</td><td>m64,r128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVLHPS MOVHLPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVMSKPS</td><td>r32,r128</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MOVNTPS</td><td>m128,r128</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> 2</td><td> 2</td><td> </td><td>1/15-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTPI2PS</td><td>r128,r64</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTPI2PS</td><td>r128,m64</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTPS2PI CVTTPS2PI</td><td>r64,r128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTPS2PI</td><td>r64,m128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTSI2SS</td><td>r128,r32</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTSI2SS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>5</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTSS2SI CVTTSS2SI</td><td>r32,r128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CVTSS2SI</td><td>r32,m128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADDPS SUBPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADDPS SUBPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADDSS SUBSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ADDSS SUBSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MULPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MULPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MULSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MULSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>4</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIVPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>48</td><td>1/34</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIVPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>48</td><td>1/34</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIVSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>18</td><td>1/17</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DIVSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>18</td><td>1/17</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ANDPS ANDNPS ORPS XORPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ANDPS ANDNPS ORPS XORPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MAXPS MINPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td> </tr>
+<tr><td>MAXPS MINPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MAXSS MINSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>MAXSS MINSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMPccPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMPccPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMPccSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>CMPccSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>COMISS UCOMISS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>COMISS UCOMISS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td> </td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SQRTPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>56</td><td>1/56</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SQRTPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>57</td><td>1/56</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SQRTSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>30</td><td>1/28</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SQRTSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>31</td><td>1/28</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RSQRTPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RSQRTPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RSQRTSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RSQRTSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCPPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCPPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCPSS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>1</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>RCPSS</td><td>r128,m32</td><td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td>
+<td>1</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHUFPS</td><td>r128,r128,i</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHUFPS</td><td>r128,m128,i</td><td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>2</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>UNPCKHPS UNPCKLPS</td><td>r128,r128</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>UNPCKHPS UNPCKLPS</td><td>r128,m128</td><td> </td><td>2</td>
+<td> </td><td>2</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>3</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>LDMXCSR</td><td>m32</td><td colspan="3">11</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>15</td><td>1/15</td></tr>
+<tr><td>STMXCSR</td><td>m32</td><td colspan="3">6</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>7</td><td>1/9</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXSAVE</td><td>m4096</td><td colspan="3">116</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>62</td><td> </td></tr>
+<tr><td>FXRSTOR</td><td>m4096</td><td colspan="3">89</td>
+<td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>68</td><td> </td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<h2><a name="30">30</a>. Testing speed</h2><p>
+The Pentium family of processors have an internal 64 bit clock counter which can be read
+into <kbd>EDX:EAX</kbd> using the instruction <kbd>RDTSC</kbd>
+(read time stamp counter). This is very useful for
+testing exactly how many clock cycles a piece of code takes.
+<p>
+The program below is useful for measuring the number of clock cycles a piece of code
+takes. The program executes the code to test 10 times and stores the 10 clock counts.
+The program can be used in both 16 and 32 bit mode on the PPlain and PMMX:
+<pre>;************ Test program for PPlain and PMMX: ********************
+
+ITER EQU 10 ; number of iterations
+OVERHEAD EQU 15 ; 15 for PPlain, 17 for PMMX
+
+RDTSC MACRO ; define RDTSC instruction
+ DB 0FH,31H
+ENDM
+;************ Data segment: ********************
+.DATA ; data segment
+ALIGN 4
+COUNTER DD 0 ; loop counter
+TICS DD 0 ; temporary storage of clock
+RESULTLIST DD ITER DUP (0) ; list of test results
+;************ Code segment: ********************
+.CODE ; code segment
+BEGIN: MOV [COUNTER],0 ; reset loop counter
+TESTLOOP: ; test loop
+;************ Do any initializations here: ********************
+ FINIT
+;************ End of initializations ********************
+ RDTSC ; read clock counter
+ MOV [TICS],EAX ; save count
+ CLD ; non-pairable filler
+REPT 8
+ NOP ; eight NOP's to avoid shadowing effect
+ENDM
+
+;************ Put instructions to test here: ********************
+ FLDPI ; this is only an example
+ FSQRT
+ RCR EBX,10
+ FSTP ST
+;***************** End of instructions to test ********************
+
+ CLC ; non-pairable filler with shadow
+ RDTSC ; read counter again
+ SUB EAX,[TICS] ; compute difference
+ SUB EAX,OVERHEAD ; subtract clocks used by fillers etc.
+ MOV EDX,[COUNTER] ; loop counter
+ MOV [RESULTLIST][EDX],EAX ; store result in table
+ ADD EDX,TYPE RESULTLIST ; increment counter
+ MOV [COUNTER],EDX ; store counter
+ CMP EDX,ITER * (TYPE RESULTLIST)
+ JB TESTLOOP ; repeat ITER times
+
+; insert here code to read out the values in RESULTLIST</pre>
+<p>
+The 'filler' instructions before and after the piece of code to test are are
+included in order to get consistent results on the PPlain. The <kbd>CLD</kbd>
+is a non-pairable instruction which has been inserted to make sure the pairing
+is the same the first time as the subsequent times. The
+eight <kbd>NOP</kbd> instructions are inserted to prevent any prefixes in the
+code to test to be decoded in the shadow of the preceding instructions on
+the PPlain. Single byte instructions are used here to obtain the same pairing
+the first time as the subsequent times. The <kbd>CLC</kbd> after the
+code to test is a non-pairable instruction which has a shadow under which
+the <kbd>0FH</kbd> prefix of the <kbd>RDTSC</kbd> can be decoded so that
+it is independent of any shadowing effect from the code
+to test on the PPlain.
+<p>
+On The PMMX you may want to insert <kbd>XOR EAX,EAX / CPUID</kbd>
+before the instructions to test if you want the FIFO instruction buffer
+to be empty, or some time-consuming instruction
+(f.ex. <kbd>CLI</kbd> or <kbd>AAD</kbd>) if you want the FIFO buffer to
+be full (<kbd>CPUID</kbd> has no shadow under which
+prefixes of subsequent instructions can decode).
+<p>
+On the PPro, PII and PIII you have to insert <kbd>XOR EAX,EAX / CPUID</kbd>
+before and after each <kbd>RDTSC</kbd> to prevent it from executing
+in parallel with anything else, and remove the filler
+instructions. (<kbd>CPUID</kbd> is a serializing instruction which means
+that it flushes the pipeline and waits for all pending operations to
+finish before proceeding. This is useful for testing purposes.)
+<p>
+The <kbd>RDTSC</kbd> instruction cannot execute in virtual mode on the
+PPlain and PMMX, so if you are running DOS programs you must run
+in real mode. (Press F8 while booting and select
+"safe mode command prompt only" or "bypass startup files").
+<p>
+The complete test program is available from <a href="http://www.agner.org/assem/">www.agner.org/assem/</a>.
+<p>
+The Pentium processors have special performance monitor counters which can count
+events such as cache misses, misalignments, various stalls, etc. Details about how to use the
+performance monitor counters are not covered by this manual but can be found in
+"Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual", vol. 3, Appendix A.
+<p>
+<h2><a name="31">31</a>. Comparison of the different microprocessors</h2><p>
+The following table summarizes some important differences between the microprocessors in
+the Pentium family:
+<p>
+
+<table border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=1>
+<tr><td> </td>
+<td class="a3"> PPlain </td>
+<td class="a3"> PMMX </td>
+<td class="a3"> PPro </td>
+<td class="a3"> PII </td>
+<td class="a3"> PIII </td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>code cache, kb</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td>16</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td>16</td>
+<td>16</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>data cache, kb</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td>16</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td>16</td>
+<td>16</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>built in level 2 cache, kb</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>256</td>
+<td>512 *)</td>
+<td>512 *)</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>MMX instructions</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+<td>yes</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>XMM instructions</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>yes</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>conditional move instructruct.</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>out of order execution</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>no</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+<td>yes</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>branch prediction</td>
+<td>poor</td>
+<td>good</td>
+<td>good</td>
+<td>good</td>
+<td>good</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>branch target buffer entries</td>
+<td>256</td>
+<td>256</td>
+<td>512</td>
+<td>512</td>
+<td>512</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>return stack buffer size</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>4</td>
+<td>16</td>
+<td>16</td>
+<td>16</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>branch misprediction penalty</td>
+<td>3-4</td>
+<td>4-5</td>
+<td>10-20</td>
+<td>10-20</td>
+<td>10-20</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>partial register stall</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>5</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>FMUL latency</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>5</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>FMUL throughput</td>
+<td>1/2</td>
+<td>1/2</td>
+<td>1/2</td>
+<td>1/2</td>
+<td>1/2</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>IMUL latency</td>
+<td>9</td>
+<td>9</td>
+<td>4</td>
+<td>4</td>
+<td>4</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>IMUL throughput</td>
+<td>1/9</td>
+<td>1/9</td>
+<td>1/1</td>
+<td>1/1</td>
+<td>1/1</td>
+</tr></table>
+<p>*) Celeron: 0-128, Xeon: 512 or more, many other variants available.
+On some versions the level 2 cache runs at half speed.
+<p>
+<u>Comments to the table:</u><br>
+Code cache size is important if the critical part of your program is not limited to a small
+memory space.
+<p>
+Data cache size is important for all programs that handle more than small amounts of data
+in the critical part.
+<p>
+MMX and XMM instructions are useful for programs that handle massively parallel
+data, such as sound and image processing. In other applications it may not be
+possible to take advantage of the MMX and XMM instructions.
+<p>
+Conditional move instructructions are useful for avoiding poorly predictable conditional
+jumps.
+<p>
+Out of order execution improves performance, especially on non-optimized code. It includes
+automatic instruction reordering and register renaming.
+<p>
+Processors with a good branch prediction method can predict simple repetitive patterns. A
+good branch prediction is most important if the branch misprediction penalty is high.
+<p>
+A return stack buffer improves prediction of return instructions when a subroutine is called
+alternatingly from different locations.
+<p>
+Partial register stalls make handling of mixed data sizes (8, 16, 32 bit) more difficult.
+<p>
+The latency of a multiplication instruction is the time it takes in a dependency chain. A
+throughput of 1/2 means that the execution can be pipelined so that a new multiplication
+can begin every second clock cycle. This defines the speed for handling parallel data.
+<p>
+Most of the optimizations described in this document have little or no negative effects on
+other microprocessors, including non-Intel processors, but there are some problems to be
+aware of.
+<p>
+Scheduling floating point code for the PPlain and PMMX often requires a lot of
+extra <kbd>FXCH</kbd> instructions. This will slow down execution on older microprocessors, but not on the
+Pentium family and advanced non-Intel processors.
+<p>
+Taking advantage of the MMX instructions in the PMMX, PII and PIII processors or the
+conditional moves in the PPro, PII and PIII will create problems if you want your code to be
+compatible with earlier microprocessors. The solution may be to write several versions of
+your code, each optimized for a particular processor. Your program should detect which
+processor it is running on and select the appropriate version of code
+(chapter <a href="#27_10">27.10</a>).
+<p>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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Fm(The)20 b(Br)n(atko{Kop)n(e)n(c)g(Exp)n(eriment)g(:)29 +b(A)388 536 y(Comp)n(arison)16 b(of)f(Human)i(and)f(Computer)f(Performanc)n +(e)h(in)f(Chess.)g Fp(Adv)n(ances)388 586 y(in)10 b(Computer)g(Chess)i(3,)e +(Clark)o(e)h(M.)f(\(ed\),)h(pp)g(51-72.)e(P)o(ergamon)g(Press,)j(Oxford.)303 +666 y([13])19 b(M.)12 b(S.)g(Campb)q(ell)f(and)h(T.)g(A.)g(Marsland)g +(\(1983\))g(:)17 b Fm(A)c(Comp)n(arison)h(of)f(Minimax)388 +716 y(T)m(r)n(e)n(e)h(Se)n(ar)n(ch)h(A)o(lgorithms.)e Fp(Arti\014cial)g(In)o +(telligence,)h(V)m(ol)e(20)i(No)f(4,)h(pp)g(347-367.)303 795 +y([14])19 b(J.)g(H.)f(Condon)g(and)g(K.)g(Thompson)f(\(1982\))h(:)27 +b Fm(Bel)r(le)19 b(Chess)g(Har)n(dwar)n(e.)e Fp(Ad-)388 845 +y(v)n(ances)d(in)e(Computer)g(Chess)h(3,)g(M.)f(Clark)o(e)g(\(ed\),)h(pp)g +(45-54,)e(P)o(ergamon)g(Press,)388 895 y(Oxford.)303 975 y([15])19 +b(S.)14 b(M.)f(Cracraft)h(\(1984\))f(:)18 b Fm(Bitmap)c(Move)i(Gener)n(ation) +f(in)f(Chess.)g Fp(ICCA)f(Jour-)388 1024 y(nal,)g(V)m(ol)g(7,)g(No)h(3,)f(pp) 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y(A.)e(Sunn)o(uc)o(ks)g +(\(ed\),)h(St)f(Martin's)f(Press,)i(New)g(Y)m(ork.)303 1752 +y([21])k Fm(Discussion)d(with)e(T)m(om)h(F)m(urstembur)n(g,)e(Fidelity)i(Ele) +n(ctr)n(onics,)f(A)o(ugust)h(1989.)303 1831 y Fp([22])k(J.)c(J.)f(Gillogly)e +(\(1972\))i(:)19 b Fm(The)d(T)m(e)n(chnolo)n(gy)g(Chess)f(Pr)n(o)n(gr)n(am.)f +Fp(Arti\014cial)g(In)o(telli-)388 1881 y(gence,)h(V)m(ol)e(3,)g(pp)h +(145-163.)303 1961 y([23])19 b(R.)f(D.)f(Green)o(blatt,)i(D.)f(E.)g(Eastlak)o +(e)g(I)q(I)q(I)h(and)f(S.)g(D.)f(Cro)q(c)o(k)o(er)i(\(1967\))f(:)27 +b Fm(The)388 2011 y(Gr)n(e)n(enblatt)15 b(Chess)f(Pr)n(o)n(gr)n(am.)f +Fp(Pro)q(c.)i(FJCC,V)m(ol)d(31,)h(pp)h(801-810)303 2090 y([24])19 +b(G.)14 b(Grottling)g(\(1986\))g(:)19 b Fm(The)d(Swe)n(dish)f(r)n(ating)h +(list.)d Fp(ICCA)i(Journal,)f(V)m(ol)g(9,)g(No)388 2140 y(1,)f(pp)h(56.)303 +2220 y([25])19 b(J.)i(Hamlen)e(\(1989\))g(:)32 b Fm(T)m(r)n(e)n(e)19 +b(Se)n(ar)n(ching)j(A)o(lgorithms)e(and)h(Computer)g(Chess.)388 +2270 y Fp(M.Sc.)14 b(Thesis,)g(Univ)o(ersit)o(y)g(of)f(London.)303 +2350 y([26])19 b(L.)12 b(R.)f(Harris)i(\(1977\))e(:)17 b Fm(The)d(Heuristic)e +(Se)n(ar)n(ch)h(:)18 b(A)o(n)c(alternative)f(to)g(the)g(alpha-)388 +2399 y(b)n(eta)19 b(minimax)f(pr)n(o)n(c)n(e)n(dur)n(e.)f Fp(Chess)i(Skill)d +(in)h(Man)h(and)f(Mac)o(hine.)h(P)m(.)f(W.)f(F)m(rey)388 2449 +y(\(ed\),)f(pp)e(157-166,)f(Springer{V)m(erlag,)h(New)i(Y)m(ork.)946 +2574 y(171)p eop +%%Page: 172 174 +172 173 bop 303 307 a Fp([27])19 b(D.)d(Hartmann)g(\(1989\))g(:)24 +b Fm(Notions)17 b(of)h(Evaluation)g(F)m(unctions)g(T)m(este)n(d)f(against)388 +357 y(Gr)n(andmaster)g(Games.)f Fp(Adv)n(ances)h(in)f(Computer)f(Chess)i(5,)f +(D.)f(F.)h(Beal)g(\(ed\),)388 407 y(pp)e(91-141,)e(Elsevier)j(Science)g +(Publishers)g(B.V.,)e(North)h(Holland.)303 487 y([28])19 b(E.)c(Hearst)i +(\(1977\))d(:)21 b Fm(Man)c(and)g(Machine)g(:)k(Chess)16 b(A)n(chievements)h +(and)g(Chess)388 536 y(Thinking.)f Fp(Chess)h(Skill)d(in)h(Man)g(and)h(Mac)o 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Fp(Arti\014cial)j(In)o(telligence,)f(V)m(ol)g(6)h(No)f(4,)g(pp)h +(293-326.)303 1313 y([34])19 b(D.)11 b(Kop)q(ec,)h(M.)e(Newb)q(orn)i(and)f +(W.)f(Y)m(u)h(\(1986\))f(:)17 b Fm(Exp)n(eriments)12 b(in)h(Chess)f(Co)n +(gni-)388 1363 y(tion.)d Fp(Adv)n(ances)i(in)e(Computer)f(Chess)j(4,)e(D.)g +(F.)g(Beal)g(\(ed\),)i(pp)e(59-79.)f(P)o(ergamon)388 1413 y(Press,)15 +b(Oxford.)303 1493 y([35])k(A.)e(Kotok)h(\(1962\))e(:)25 b +Fm(A)18 b(Chess)h(Playing)f(Pr)n(o)n(gr)n(am)f(for)h(the)g(IBM)h(7090.)f +Fp(B.Sc.)388 1543 y(Thesis,)c(MIT.)303 1622 y([36])19 b(D.)13 +b(Levy)h(\(1976\))g(:)k Fm(Chess)c(and)i(Computers.)d Fp(Batsford)i(Bo)q +(oks,)e(London.)303 1702 y([37])19 b(D.)c(Levy)h(\(1979\))g(:)22 +b Fm(Chess)16 b(Pr)n(o)n(gr)n(amming.)f Fp(P)o(ersonal)h(Computer)f(W)m +(orld,)g(Ma)o(y)388 1752 y(1979,)e(pp)h(25-27.)303 1831 y([38])19 +b(D.)12 b(Levy)m(,)g(D.)f(Brough)o(ton,)h(M.)g(T)m(a)o(ylor)f(\(1989\))h(:)17 +b Fm(The)c(SEX)h(A)o(lgorithm)e(in)i(Com-)388 1881 y(puter)h(Chess.)f 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Fp([43])19 b(A.)13 b(Nimzo)o(witsc)o(h)f(\(1929\))g(:) +18 b Fm(My)c(System.)f Fp(Mo)q(dern)h(Chess)g(Masterpieces,)h(Bats-)388 +357 y(ford)f(Bo)q(oks,)g(London.)303 440 y([44])19 b(A.)11 +b(Nimzo)o(witsc)o(h)f(\(1936\))g(:)17 b Fm(Chess)12 b(Pr)n(axis.)f +Fp(Batsford)g(Chess)i(Classics,)e(Batsford)388 490 y(Bo)q(oks,)j(London.)303 +573 y([45])19 b(T.)c(Nitsc)o(he)h(\(1982\))e(:)20 b Fm(A)c(L)n(e)n(arning)f +(Chess)h(Pr)n(o)n(gr)n(am.)e Fp(Adv)n(ances)i(in)e(Computer)388 +623 y(Chess)h(3,)f(M.)f(Clark)o(e)h(\(ed\),)g(pp)g(113-120.)d(P)o(ergamon)i +(Press,)i(Oxford.)303 706 y([46])k(A.)f(Reinefeld)f(\(1983\))g(:)25 +b Fm(A)o(n)18 b(Impr)n(ovement)h(of)f(the)g(Sc)n(out)h(T)m(r)n(e)n(e-Se)n(ar) +n(ch)e(A)o(lgo-)388 756 y(rithm.)c Fp(ICCA)h(Journal,)f(V)m(ol)g(6)h(No)f(4,) +g(pp)h(4-14.)303 839 y([47])19 b(F.)14 b(Rein\014eld)f(\(1945\))h(:)j +Fm(Win)f(A)o(t)e(Chess.)g Fp(Do)o(v)o(er)f(Bo)q(oks.)303 922 +y([48])19 b(A.)h(L.)e(Sam)o(uels)h(\(1959\))f(:)30 b Fm(Some)20 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Fp(can)g(b)q(e)g(a)g(pa)o(wn)f(lev)o(er)i(on)e(\014le)h +Fm(f)g Fp(and)321 1812 y(incur)g(no)f(enem)o(y)h(pa)o(wn)f(blo)q(c)o(k)n(ade) +h(b)q(efore)g(the)h(pa)o(wn)e(lev)o(erage)i(square.)321 1862 +y(Otherwise)g(F)-5 b(ALSE.)946 2574 y(192)p eop +%%Page: 193 195 +193 194 bop 262 357 a Fu(FUNCTION)p 262 364 309 2 v 262 457 +a Fs(])p Fu(P)n(a)n(wns)20 b(:)25 b Ft(=)-8 b Fa(\))18 b Fu(In)n(teger)262 +556 y Fl(Example)p 262 571 182 2 v 262 657 a Fs(])p Ft(P)o(a)o(wns)262 +757 y Fl(Descripti)o(on)p 262 772 241 2 v 321 858 a Fp(Returns)c(the)h(n)o +(um)o(b)q(er)e(of)g(pa)o(wns)h(curren)o(tly)h(on)f(the)g(b)q(oard.)262 +1207 y Fu(FUNCTION)p 262 1214 309 2 v 262 1306 a(Pin)k(:)25 +b(Colour)18 b(x)h(Square)f(x)g(Square)g(x)h(Square)f Ft(=)-8 +b Fa(\))18 b Fu(Bo)r(olean)262 1406 y Fl(Example)p 262 1421 +182 2 v 262 1509 a Ft(Pin\(col,sq1,sq2,sq3\))262 1609 y Fl(Descripti)o(on)p +262 1624 241 2 v 321 1710 a Fp(Returns)c(TR)o(UE)g(if)f(a)h(piece)g(of)g +(colour)f Fm(c)n(ol)h Fp(on)g(square)g Fm(sq1)g Fp(pins)g(a)g(piece)h(of)321 +1760 y(colour)e(OPP\(col\))i(on)f(square)g Fm(sq2)g Fp(against)g(a)f(piece)i +(also)e(of)g(colour)h(Opp\(col\))321 1810 y(on)f(square)i Fm(sq3)p +Fp(.)380 1860 y(where)131 b(On\(sq1\))14 b Ff(2)g Fp([Bishop,Ro)q(ok,Queen])e +Fl(and)616 1909 y Fp(On\(sq2\))i Ff(2)g Fp([Knigh)o(t,Bishop,Ro)q(ok,Queen])e +Fl(and)616 1959 y Fp(On\(sq3\))i Ff(2)g Fp([Knigh)o(t,Bishop,Ro)q +(ok,Queen,King].)946 2574 y(193)p eop +%%Page: 194 196 +194 195 bop 262 357 a Fu(FUNCTION)p 262 364 309 2 v 262 457 +a(P)n(oten)n(tialChec)n(k)18 b(:)25 b(Colour)18 b(x)h(Square)f(x)g(Square)g +Ft(=)-8 b Fa(\))18 b Fu(Bo)r(olean)262 556 y Fl(Example)p 262 +571 182 2 v 262 660 a Ft(P)o(oten)o(tialChec)o(k\(col,sq1,sq2\))262 +759 y Fl(Descripti)o(on)p 262 774 241 2 v 321 860 a Fp(Returns)c(TR)o(UE)g +(if)f(a)h(piece)g(of)g(colour)f Fm(c)n(ol)h Fp(on)g(square)g +Fm(sq1)g Fp(can)g(mo)o(v)o(e)f(to)g(square)i Fm(sq2)321 910 +y Fp(and)e(giv)o(e)h(c)o(hec)o(k.)262 1259 y Fu(FUNCTION)p +262 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Fp(1\))g(and)f(where)i Fh(sq)1311 966 +y Fe(n)1348 960 y Fp(is)f(ev)o(ery)g(square)321 1010 y(on)f(a)h(piece)h(mo)o +(v)o(emen)o(t)c(direction)j(b)q(et)o(w)o(een)h Fm(sq1)f Fp(and)g +Fm(sq2)g Fp(inclusiv)o(e.)262 1359 y Fu(FUNCTION)p 262 1366 +309 2 v 262 1458 a(SameDiagonal)j(:)24 b(Square)18 b(x)h(Square)f +Ft(=)-8 b Fa(\))18 b Fu(Bo)r(olean)262 1558 y Fl(Example)p +262 1573 182 2 v 262 1661 a Ft(SameDiagonal\(sq1,sq2\))262 +1761 y Fl(Descripti)o(on)p 262 1776 241 2 v 321 1862 a Fp(Returns)c(TR)o(UE)g +(if)f(squares)i Fm(sq1)f Fp(and)g Fm(sq2)g Fp(are)g(on)g(the)g(same)f +(diagonal.)321 1912 y(Otherwise)i(F)-5 b(ALSE.)946 2574 y(195)p +eop +%%Page: 196 198 +196 197 bop 262 357 a Fu(FUNCTION)p 262 364 309 2 v 262 457 +a(SemiOp)r(en)16 b(:)24 b(Colour)19 b(x)f(File)g Ft(=)-8 b +Fa(\))18 b Fu(Bo)r(olean)262 556 y Fl(Example)p 262 571 182 +2 v 262 660 a Ft(SemiOp)q(en\(col,f)s(\))262 759 y Fl(Descripti)o(on)p +262 774 241 2 v 321 860 a Fp(Returns)c(TR)o(UE)g(if)f(there)i(are)f(no)g(pa)o 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+%%EOF diff --git a/programs/xboard.html b/programs/xboard.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c02b03b --- /dev/null +++ b/programs/xboard.html @@ -0,0 +1,1300 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<title>Chess Engine Communication Protocol</title> +</head> + +<body> +<hr noshade size="2"> +<h1>Chess Engine Communication Protocol</h1> +<h2><a href="http://www.tim-mann.org/chess.html">Tim Mann</a></h2> +<p> +Last modified on Sun Sep 17 23:37:17 PDT 2000 by mann +<hr noshade size="2"> + +<ul> +<li><a href="#1">1. Introduction</a> +<li><a href="#2">2. Connection</a> +<li><a href="#3">3. Debugging</a> +<li><a href="#4">4. How it got this way</a> +<li><a href="#5">5. WinBoard requires Win32 engines</a> +<li><a href="#6">6. Hints on input/output</a> +<li><a href="#7">7. Interrupts</a> +<li><a href="#8">8. Commands from xboard to the engine</a> +<li><a href="#9">9. Commands from the engine to xboard</a> +<li><a href="#10">10. Thinking Output</a> +<li><a href="#11">11. Time control</a> +<li><a href="#12">12. Analyze Mode</a> +<li><a href="#13">13. Idioms and backward compatibility features</a> +</ul> + +<hr noshade size="2"> + +<h2><a name="1">1. Introduction</a></h2> + +<p> +This document is a set of rough notes on the protocol that xboard and +WinBoard use to communicate with gnuchessx and other chess engines. +These notes may be useful if you want to connect a different chess +engine to xboard. Throughout the notes, "xboard" means both xboard +and WinBoard except where they are specifically contrasted. +</p> + +<p> +There are two reasons I can imagine someone wanting to do this: +</p> +<ol> +<li>You have, or are developing, a chess engine but you don't want to +write your own graphical interface. +<li>You have, or are developing,a chess engine, and you want to +interface it to the Internet Chess Server. +</ol> + +<p> +In case (2), if you are using xboard, you will need to configure the +"Zippy" code into it, but WinBoard includes this code already. See +the file <a +href="http://www.tim-mann.org/xboard/zippy.README">zippy.README</a> +in the xboard or WinBoard distribution for more information. + +</p> + +<p> +These notes are unpolished, but I've attempted to make them complete +in this release. If you notice any errors, omissions, or misleading +statements, let me know. +</p> + +<p> +I'd like to hear from everyone who is trying to interface their own +chess engine to xboard/WinBoard. Please email me, <a +href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a>. Also, please join +the mailing list for authors of xboard/WinBoard compatible chess +engines. The list is now hosted by egroups.com; you can join at <a +href="http://www.egroups.com/group/chess-engines" +>http://www.egroups.com/group/chess-engines</a>, or you can read the +list there without joining. The list is filtered to prevent spam. +</p> + +<h2><a name="2">2. Connection</a></h2> + +<p> +An xboard chess engine runs as a separate process from xboard itself, +connected to xboard through a pair of anonymous pipes. The engine +does not have to do anything special to set up these pipes. xboard +sets up the pipes itself and starts the engine with one pipe as its +standard input and the other as its standard output. The engine then +reads commands from its standard input and writes responses to its +standard output. This is, unfortunately, a little more complicated to +do right than it sounds; see <a href="#6">section 6</a> below. +</p> + +<p> +And yes, contrary to some people's expectations, exactly the same +thing is true for WinBoard. Pipes and standard input/output are +implemented in Win32 and work fine. You don't have to use DDE, COM, +DLLs, BSOD, or any of the other infinite complexity that +Microsoft has created just to talk between two programs. A WinBoard +chess engine is a Win32 console program that simply reads from its +standard input and writes to its standard output. See sections +<a href="#5">5</a> and <a href="#6">6</a> below for additional details. +</p> + +<h2><a name="3">3. Debugging</a></h2> + +<p> +To diagnose problems in your engine's interaction with xboard, use the +-debug flag on xboard's command line to see the messages that are +being exchanged. In WinBoard, these messages are written to the file +WinBoard.debug instead of going to the screen. +</p> + +<p> +You can turn debug mode on or off while WinBoard is running by +pressing Ctrl+Alt+F12. You can turn debug mode on or off while xboard +is running by binding DebugProc to a shortcut key (and pressing the +key!); see the instructions on shortcut keys in the xboard man page. +</p> + +<p> +While your engine is running under xboard/WinBoard, you can send a +command directly to the engine by pressing Shift+1 (xboard) or Alt+1 +(WinBoard 4.0.3 and later). This brings up a dialog that you can type +your command into. Press Shift+2 (Alt+2) instead to send to the +second chess engine in Two Machines mode. On WinBoard 4.0.2 and earlier, +Ctrl+Alt is used in place of Alt; this had to be changed due to a conflict +with typing the @-sign on some European keyboards. +</p> + +<h2><a name="4">4. How it got this way</a></h2> + +<p> +Originally, xboard was just trying to talk to the existing +command-line interface of gnuchess, designed for people to type +commands to. So the communication protocol is very ad-hoc. (The +reason why there is a gnuchessx that's different from gnuchessr is +buried in the mists of time, before I started working on xboard, but I +think it was due to someone working around a stupid bug in xboard by +changing gnuchess instead of fixing the bug. The differences are +tiny.) It's now tough to change the interface, because xboard and +gnuchess are separate programs, and I don't want to force people to +upgrade them together to versions that match. +</p> + +<p> +Things have changed a bit now that there are many more engines that +work with xboard. I've had to make the protocol description more +precise, and I've added some features that GNU Chess does not support. +In the latest version, I've specified a standard semantics for many +commands that differs in some details from what GNU Chess provides, +but is easier to work with. In the future I may release a modified +GNU Chess that conforms exactly to this protocol. +</p> + +<h2><a name="5">5. WinBoard requires Win32 engines</a></h2> + +<p> +Due to some Microsoft brain damage that I don't understand, WinBoard +does not work with chess engines that were compiled to use a DOS +extender for 32-bit addressing. (Probably not with 16-bit DOS or +Windows programs either.) WinBoard works only with engines that are +compiled for the Win32 API. You can get a free compiler that targets +the Win32 API from <a href="http://sourceware.cygnus.com/cygwin/" +>http://sourceware.cygnus.com/cygwin/</a>. I think DJGPP 2.x should +also work if you use the RSXNTDJ extension, but I haven't tried it. +Of course, Microsoft Visual C++ will work. Most likely the other +commercial products that support Win32 will work too (Borland, etc.), +but I have not tried them. +</p> + +<h2><a name="6">6. Hints on input/output</a></h2> + +<p> +Beware of using buffered I/O in your chess engine. The C stdio +library, C++ streams, and the I/O packages in most other languages use +buffering both on input and output. That means two things. First, +when your engine tries to write some characters to xboard, the library +stashes them in an internal buffer and does not actually write them to +the pipe connected to xboard until either the buffer fills up or you +call a special library routine asking for it to be flushed. (In C +stdio, this routine is named <tt>fflush</tt>.) Second, when your engine tries +to read some characters from xboard, the library does not read just +the characters you asked for -- it reads all the characters that are +currently available (up to some limit) and stashes any characters you +are not yet ready for in an internal buffer. The next time you ask to +read, you get the characters from the buffer (if any) before the +library tries to read more data from the actual pipe. +</p> + +<p> +Why does this cause problems? First, on the output side, remember +that your engine produces output in small quantities (say, a few +characters for a move, or a line or two giving the current analysis), +and that data always needs to be delivered to xboard/WinBoard for +display immediately. If you use buffered output, the data you print +will sit in a buffer in your own address space instead of being +delivered. +</p> + +<p> +You can usually fix the output buffering problem by asking for the +buffering to be turned off. In C stdio, you do this by calling +<tt>setbuf(stdout, NULL)</tt>. A more laborious and error-prone +method is to carefully call <tt>fflush(stdout)</tt> after every line +you output; I don't recommend this. In C++, you can try +<tt>cout.setf(ios::unitbuf)</tt>, which is documented in current +editions of "The C++ Programming Language," but not older ones. +Another C++ method that might work is +<tt>cout.rdbuf()->setbuf(NULL, 0)</tt>. Alternatively, you can +carefully call <tt>cout.flush()</tt> after every line you output; +again, I don't recommend this. +</p> + +<p> +Another way to fix the problem is to use unbuffered operating system +calls to write directly to the file descriptor for standard output. +On Unix, this means <tt>write(1, ...)</tt> -- see the man page for write(2). +On Win32, you can use either the Unix-like <tt>_write(1, ...)</tt> or Win32 +native routines like <tt>WriteFile</tt>. +</p> + +<p> +Second, on the input side, you are likely to want to poll during your +search and stop it if new input has come in. If you implement +pondering, you'll need this so that pondering stops when the user +makes a move. You should also poll during normal thinking on your +move, so that you can implement the "?" (move now) command, and so +that you can respond promptly to a "result", "force", or "quit" +command if xboard wants to end the game or terminate your engine. +Buffered input makes polling more complicated -- when you poll, you +must stop your search if there are <em>either</em> characters in the buffer +<em>or</em> characters available from the underlying file descriptor. +</p> + +<p> +The most direct way to fix this problem is to use unbuffered operating +system calls to read (and poll) the underlying file descriptor +directly. On Unix, use <tt>read(0, ...)</tt> to read from standard input, and +use <tt>select()</tt> to poll it. See the man pages read(2) and select(2). +(Don't follow the example of GNU Chess and use the FIONREAD ioctl to +poll for input. It is not very portable; that is, it does not exist +on all versions of Unix, and is broken on some that do have it.) On +Win32, you can use either the Unix-like <tt>_read(0, ...)</tt> or the native +Win32 <tt>ReadFile()</tt> to read. Unfortunately, under Win32, the function to +use for polling is different depending on whether the input device is +a pipe, a console, or something else. (More Microsoft brain damage +here -- did they never hear of device independence?) For pipes, you +can use <tt>PeekNamedPipe</tt> to poll (even when the pipe is unnamed). +For consoles, +you can use <tt>GetNumberOfConsoleInputEvents</tt>. For sockets only, you can +use <tt>select()</tt>. It might be possible to use +<tt>WaitForSingleObject</tt> more +generally, but I have not tried it. Some code to do these things can +be found in Crafty's utility.c, but I don't guarantee that it's all +correct or optimal. +</p> + +<p> +A second way to fix the problem might be to ask your I/O library not +to buffer on input. It should then be safe to poll the underlying +file descriptor as descrbed above. With C, you can try calling +<tt>setbuf(stdin, NULL)</tt>. However, I have never tried this. Also, there +could be problems if you use <tt>scanf()</tt>, at least with certain patterns, +because <tt>scanf()</tt> sometimes needs to read one extra character and "push +it back" into the buffer; hence, there is a one-character pushback +buffer even if you asked for stdio to be unbuffered. With C++, you +can try <tt>cin.rdbuf()->setbuf(NULL, 0)</tt>, but again, I have never tried +this. +</p> + +<p> +A third way to fix the problem is to check whether there are +characters in the buffer whenever you poll. C I/O libraries generally +do not provide any portable way to do this. Under C++, you can use +<tt>cin.rdbuf()->in_avail()</tt>. This method has been reported to +work with +EXchess. Remember that if there are no characters in the buffer, you +still have to poll the underlying file descriptor too, using the +method descrbed above. +</p> + +<p> +A fourth way to fix the problem is to use a separate thread to read +from stdin. This way works well if you are familiar with thread +programming. This thread can be blocked waiting for input to come in +at all times, while the main thread of your engine does its thinking. +When input arrives, you have the thread put the input into a buffer +and set a flag in a global variable. Your search routine then +periodically tests the global variable to see if there is input to +process, and stops if there is. WinBoard and my Win32 ports of ICC +timestamp and FICS timeseal use threads to handle multiple input +sources. +</p> + +<h2><a name="7">7. Signals</a></h2> + +<p>Engines that run on Unix need to be concerned with two Unix +signals: <tt>SIGTERM</tt> and <tt>SIGINT</tt>. This applies both to +engines that run under xboard and (the unusual case of) engines that +WinBoard remotely runs on a Unix host using the -firstHost or +-secondHost feature. It does not apply to engines that run on +Windows, because Windows does not have Unix-style signals.</p> + +<p>First, when an engine is sent the "quit" command, it is also given a +<tt>SIGTERM</tt> signal shortly afterward to make sure it goes away. If your +engine reliably responds to "quit", and the signal causes problems for +you, you should ignore it by calling <tt>signal(SIGTERM, SIG_IGN)</tt> at the +start of your program.</p> + +<p>Second, +xboard will send an interrupt signal (<tt>SIGINT</tt>) at certain times when it +believes the engine may not be listening to user input (thinking or +pondering). WinBoard currently does this only when the engine is +running remotely using the -firstHost or -secondHost feature, not when +it is running locally. You probably need to know only enough about +this grungy feature to keep it from getting in your way. +</p> + +<p> +The <tt>SIGINT</tt>s are basically tailored to the needs of GNU Chess on +systems where its input polling code is broken or disabled. Because +they work in a rather peculiar way, it is recommended that you simply +ignore <tt>SIGINT</tt> when running under Unix in xboard mode. You can do this +by having your engine call <tt>signal(SIGINT, SIG_IGN)</tt>. Alternatively, +you can configure your personal copy of xboard to not send <tt>SIGINT</tt> by +running configure with the --disable-sigint option. This won't help +you if you give your engine to other people who don't want to +recompile their xboard and possibly break its interaction with GNU +Chess. +</p> + +<p> +Here are details for the curious. If xboard needs to send a command +when it is the chess engine's move (such as before the "?" command), +it sends a <tt>SIGINT</tt> first. If xboard needs to send commands when it is +not the chess engine's move, but the chess engine may be pondering +(thinking on its opponent's time) or analyzing (analysis or analyze +file mode), xboard sends a <tt>SIGINT</tt> before the first such command only. +Another <tt>SIGINT</tt> is not sent until another move is made, even if xboard +issues more commands. This behavior is necessary for GNU Chess. The +first <tt>SIGINT</tt> stops it from pondering until the next move, but on some +systems, GNU Chess will die if it receives a <tt>SIGINT</tt> when not actually +thinking or pondering. +</p> + +<p> +There are two reasons why WinBoard does not send the Win32 equivalent +of <tt>SIGINT</tt> (which is called <tt>CTRL_C_EVENT</tt>) to local engines. First, the +Win32 GNU Chess port does not need it. Second, I could not find a way +to get it to work. Win32 seems to be designed under the assumption +that only console applications, not windowed applications, would ever +want to send a <tt>CTRL_C_EVENT</tt>. (More Microsoft brain damage.) +</p> + +<h2><a name="8">8. Commands from xboard to the engine</a></h2> + +<p> +All commands from xboard to the engine end with a newline (\n), even +where that is not explicitly stated. All your output to xboard must +be in complete lines; any form of prompt or partial line will cause +problems. +</p> + +<p> +At the beginning of each game, xboard sends an initialization string. +This is currently "new\nrandom\n" unless the user changes it with the +initString or secondInitString option. +</p> + +<p> +xboard normally reuses the same chess engine process for multiple +games. At the end of a game, xboard will send the +"force" command (see +below) to make sure your engine stops thinking about the current +position. It will later send the initString again to start a new +game. If your engine can't play multiple games, give xboard the +-xreuse (or -xreuse2) command line option to disable reuse. xboard +will then ask the process to quit after each game and start a new +process for the next game. +</p> + +<dl> +<dt><strong>xboard</strong> +<dd>This command will be sent once immediately after your engine +process is started. You can use it to put your engine into "xboard +mode" if that is needed. If your engine prints a prompt to ask for +user input, you must turn off the prompt and output a newline when the +"xboard" command comes in. +<p> + +<dt><strong>new</strong> +<dd>Reset the board to the standard chess starting position. Set +White on move. Leave force mode and set the engine to play Black. +Associate the engine's clock with Black and the opponent's clock with +White. Reset clocks and time controls to the start of a new game. +Stop clocks. Do not ponder on this move, even if pondering is on. +Remove any search depth limit previously set by the sd command. +<p> + +<dt><strong>variant VARNAME</strong> +<dd>If the game is not standard chess, but a variant, this command is +sent after "new" and before the first move or "edit" command. Currently +defined variant names are: + +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>wildcastle<td>Shuffle chess where king can castle from d file +<tr align="left"><th>nocastle<td>Shuffle chess with no castling at all +<tr align="left"><th>fischerandom<td>FischeRandom (not supported yet) +<tr align="left"><th>bughouse<td>Bughouse, ICC/FICS rules +<tr align="left"><th>crazyhouse<td>Crazyhouse, ICC/FICS rules +<tr align="left"><th>losers<td>Win by losing all pieces or getting mated (ICC) +<tr align="left"><th>suicide<td>Win by losing all pieces including king (FICS) +<tr align="left"><th>twokings<td>Weird ICC wild 9 +<tr align="left"><th>kriegspiel<td>Kriegspiel (not really supported) +<tr align="left"><th>atomic<td>Atomic (not really supported) +<tr align="left"><th>3check<td>Win by giving check 3 times (not supported) +<tr align="left"><th>unknown<td>Unknown variant (not supported) +</table> +<p> + +<dt><strong>quit</strong> +<dd>The chess engine should immediately exit. This command is used +when xboard is itself exiting, and also between games if the -xreuse +command line option is given (or -xreuse2 for the second engine). +See also <a href="#7">Signals</a> above. +<p> + +<dt><strong>random</strong> +<dd>This command is specific to GNU Chess. You can either ignore it +completely (that is, treat it as a no-op) or implement it as GNU Chess +does. The command toggles "random" mode (that is, it sets random = +!random). In random mode, the engine adds a small random value to its +evaluation function to vary its play. The "new" command sets random +mode off. +<p> + +<dt><strong>force</strong> +<dd>Set the engine to play neither color ("force mode"). Stop clocks. +The engine should check that moves received in force mode are legal +and made in the proper turn, but should not think, ponder, or make +moves of its own. +<p> + +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dd>Set White on move. Set the engine to play Black. Stop clocks. +<p> + +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dd>Set Black on move. Set the engine to play White. Stop clocks. +<p> + +<dt><strong>level MPS BASE INC</strong> +<dd>Set time controls. See the <a href="#11">Time Control</a> section below. +<p> + +<dt><strong>st TIME</strong> +<dd>Set time controls. See the <a href="#11">Time Control</a> section +below. The commands "level" and "st" are not used together. +<p> + +<dt><strong>sd DEPTH</strong> +<dd>The engine should limit its thinking to DEPTH ply. +<p> + +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dd>Set a clock that always belongs to the engine. N is a number in + centiseconds (units of 1/100 second). Even if the engine changes to + playing the opposite color, this clock remains with the engine. +<p> + +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> + +<dd>Set a clock that always belongs to the opponent. N is a number in +centiseconds (units of 1/100 second). Even if the opponent changes to +playing the opposite color, this clock remains with the opponent. +<p> +If needed for purposes of board display in force mode (where the +engine is not participating in the game) the time clock should be +associated with the last color that the engine was set to play, the +otim clock with the opposite color. +</p> + +<p> +If you can't handle the time and otim commands, you can ignore them +(that is, treat them as no-ops); or better, send back "Error (unknown +command): time" the first time you see "time", and xboard will realize +you don't implement the command. +</p> + +<dt><strong>go</strong> + +<dd>Leave force mode and set the engine to play the color that is on +move. Associate the engine's clock with the color that is on move, +the opponent's clock with the opposite color. Start the engine's +clock. Start thinking and eventually make a move. +<p> + +<dt><strong>MOVE</strong> +<dd>See below for the syntax of moves. If the move is illegal, print +an error message; see the section "<a href="#9">Commands from the engine to +xboard</a>". If the move is legal and in turn, make it. If not in force +mode, stop the opponent's clock, start the engine's clock, start +thinking, and eventually make a move. +<p> +When xboard sends your engine a move, it always sends coordinate +algebraic notation. There is no command name; the notation is just +sent as a line by itself. Examples: +<p> +<table> +<tr align="left"><td>Normal moves:<td>e2e4 +<tr align="left"><td>Pawn promotion:<td>e7e8q +<tr align="left"><td>Castling:<td>e1g1, e1c1, e8g8, e8c8 +<tr align="left"><td>Bughouse drop:<td>P@h3 +<tr align="left"><td>ICS Wild 0/1 castling:<td>d1f1, d1b1, d8f8, d8b8 +<tr align="left"><td>FischerRandom castling:<td>o-o, o-o-o (future) +</table> + +<p> +If your engine can't handle this kind of output, change the routine +SendMoveToProgram in backend.c to send the kind of notation you need. +If you define SAN_TO_PROGRAM, your engine will be sent Standard +Algebraic Notation (as defined by the PGN standard); for example, e4, +Nf3, exd5, Bxf7+, Qxf7#, e8=Q, O-O, or P@h3. (The P@h3 notation is a +nonstandard extension to SAN.) In the future, I may make +SAN_TO_PROGRAM a runtime option if there is demand for it. +</p> + +<p> +xboard doesn't reliably detect illegal moves, because it does not keep +track of castling unavailablity due to king or rook moves, or en +passant availability. If xboard sends an illegal move, send back an +error message so that xboard can retract it and inform the user; see +the section "<a href="#9">Commands from the engine to xboard</a>". +</p> + +<dt><strong>?</strong> +<dd>Move now. If your engine is thinking, it should move immediately; + otherwise, the command should be ignored (treated as a no-op). It + is permissible for your engine to always ignore the ? command. The + only bad consequence is that xboard's Move Now menu command will do + nothing. +<p> +It is also permissible for your engine to move immediately if it gets +any command while thinking, as long as it processes the command right +after moving, but it's preferable if you don't do this. For example, +xboard may send post, nopost, easy, hard, force, or quit while the +engine is on move. +</p> + +<dt><strong>draw</strong> +<dd>The engine's opponent offers the engine a draw. To accept the +draw, send "offer draw". To decline, ignore the offer (that is, send +nothing). If you're playing on ICS, it's possible for the draw offer +to have been withdrawn by the time you accept it, so don't assume the +game is over because you accept a draw offer. Continue playing until +xboard tells you the game is over. See also "offer draw" below. +<p> + +<dt><strong>result RESULT {COMMENT}</strong> +<dd>After the end of each game, xboard will send you a result command. +You can use this command to trigger learning. RESULT is either 1-0, +0-1, 1/2-1/2, or *, indicating whether white won, black won, the game +was a draw, or the game was unfinished. The COMMENT string is purely +a human-readable comment; its content is unspecified and subject to +change. In ICS mode, it is passed through from ICS uninterpreted. +Example: <pre>result 1-0 {White mates}</pre> +<p> +Here are some notes on interpreting the "result" command. Some apply +only to playing on ICS ("Zippy" mode). +</p> + +<p> +If you won but did not just play a mate, your opponent must have +resigned or forfeited. If you lost but were not just mated, you +probably forfeited on time, or perhaps the operator resigned manually. +If there was a draw for some nonobvious reason, perhaps your opponent +called your flag when he had insufficient mating material (or vice +versa), or perhaps the operator agreed to a draw manually. +</p> + +<p> +You will get a result command even if you already know the game ended +-- for example, after you just checkmated your opponent. In fact, if +you send the "RESULT {COMMENT}" command (discussed below), you will +simply get the same thing fed back to you with "result" tacked in +front. You might not always get a "result *" command, however. In +particular, you won't get one in local chess engine mode when the user +stops playing by selecting Reset, Edit Game, Exit or the like. +</p> + +<dt><strong>edit</strong> +<dd>The edit command puts the chess engine into a special mode, where +it accepts the following subcommands: +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>c<td>change current piece color, initially white +<tr align="left"><th>Pa4 (for example)<td>place pawn of current color on a4 +<tr align="left"><th>xa4 (for example)<td>empty the square a4 (not used by xboard) +<tr align="left"><th>#<td>clear board +<tr align="left"><th>.<td>leave edit mode +</table> + +<p>The edit command does not change the side to move. To set up a +black-on-move position, xboard uses the following command sequence: +</p> +<pre> + new + force + a2a3 + edit + <edit commands> + . +</pre> + +<p> +This sequence is used for compatibility with engines that do not +interpret the "black" command according to the specification above; +see "<a href="#13">Idioms</a>" below. +</p> + +<p> +After an edit command is complete, if a king and a rook are on their +home squares, castling is assumed to be available to them. En passant +capture is assumed to be illegal on the current move regardless of the +positions of the pawns. The clock for the 50 move rule starts at +zero, and for purposes of the draw by repetition rule, no prior +positions are deemed to have occurred. +</p> + +<dt><strong>hint</strong> +<dd>If the user asks for a hint, xboard sends your engine the command +"hint". Your engine should respond with "Hint: xxx", where xxx is a +suggested move. If there is no move to suggest, you can ignore the +hint command (that is, treat it as a no-op). +<p> + +<dt><strong>bk</strong> +<dd>If the user selects "Book" from the xboard menu, xboard will send +your engine the command "bk". You can send any text you like as the +response, as long as each line begins with a blank space or tab (\t) +character, and you send an empty line at the end. The text pops up in +a modal information dialog. +<p> + +<dt><strong>undo</strong> +<dd>If the user asks to back up one move, xboard will send you the +"undo" command. xboard will not send this command without putting you +in "force" mode first, so you don't have to worry about what should +happen if the user asks to undo a move your engine made. (GNU Chess +actually switches to playing the opposite color in this case.) +<p> + +<dt><strong>remove</strong> +<dd>If the user asks to retract a move, xboard will send you the +"remove" command. It sends this command only when the user is on +move. Your engine should undo the last two moves (one for each +player) and continue playing the same color. +<p> + +<dt><strong>hard</strong> +<dd>Turn on pondering (thinking on the opponent's time, also known as +"permanent brain"). xboard will not make any assumption about what +your default is for pondering or whether "new" affects this setting. +<p> + +<dt><strong>easy</strong> +<dd>Turn off pondering. +<p> + +<dt><strong>post</strong> +<dd>Turn on thinking/pondering output. +See <a href="#10">Thinking Output</a> section. +<p> + +<dt><strong>nopost</strong> +<dd>Turn off thinking/pondering output. +<p> + +<dt><strong>analyze</strong> +<dd>Enter analyze mode. See <a href="#12">Analyze Mode</a> section. +</dl> + +<h3>Here are some special commands for Zippy mode:</h3> + +<dl> +<dt><strong>name X</strong> +<dd>In ICS mode, xboard obtains the name of its opponent from ICS when +a game starts and saves it for use in the PGN tags. In Zippy mode, it +also passes the opponent's name on to the chess engine with the name +command. Example: <pre>name mann</pre> + +<dt><strong>rating</strong> +<dd>In ICS mode, xboard obtains the ICS opponent's rating from the +"Creating:" message that appears before each game. (This message may +not appear on servers using outdated versions of the FICS code.) In +Zippy mode, it sends these ratings on to the chess engine using the +"rating" command. The chess engine's own rating comes first, and if +either opponent is not rated, his rating is given as 0. Example: +<pre>rating 2600 1500</pre> + +<dt><strong>computer</strong> +<dd>The opponent is on the ICS computer list. +</dl> + +<h3>Bughouse commands:</h3> + +<p> +xboard now supports bughouse engines when in Zippy mode. See +<a href="http://www.tim-mann.org/xboard/zippy.README" +>zippy.README</a> for information on Zippy mode and how to turn on the +bughouse support. The bughouse move format is given above. xboard +sends the following additional commands to the engine when in bughouse +mode. Commands to inform your engine of the partner's game state may +be added in the future. +</p> + +<dl> +<dt><strong>partner <player></strong> +<dd><player> is now your partner for future games. Example: <pre>partner mann</pre> +<p> + +<dt><strong>partner</strong> +<dd>Meaning: You no longer have a partner. +<p> + +<dt><strong>ptell <text></strong> +<dd>Your partner told you <text>, either with a ptell or an ordinary tell. +<p> + +<dt><strong>holding [<white>] [<black>]</strong> +<dd>White currently holds <white>; black currently holds <black>. + Example: <pre>holding [PPPRQ] []</pre> + +<dt><strong>holding [<white>] [<black>] <color><piece></strong> +<dd>White currently holds <white>; black currently holds <black>, after + <color> acquired <piece>. Example: <pre>holding [PPPRQ] [R] BR</pre> +</dl> + +<h2><a name="9">9. Commands from the engine to xboard</a></h2> + +<dl> +<dt><strong>Illegal move: MOVE</strong> +<dt><strong>Illegal move (REASON): MOVE</strong> +<dd>If your engine receives a MOVE command that is recognizably a move +but is not legal in the current position, your engine must print an +error message in one of the above formats so that xboard can pass the +error on to the user and retract the move. The (REASON) is entirely +optional. Examples: + +<pre> + Illegal move: e2e4 + Illegal move (in check): Nf3 + Illegal move (moving into check): e1g1 +</pre> +<p> +Generally, xboard will never send an ambiguous move, so it does not +matter whether you respond to such a move with an Illegal move message +or an Error message. +</p> + +<dt><strong>Error (ERRORTYPE): COMMAND</strong> +<dd>If your engine receives a command it does not understand or does +not implement, it should print an error message in the above format so +that xboard can parse it. Examples: +<pre> + Error (ambiguous move): Nf3 + Error (unknown command): analyze + Error (command not legal now): undo + Error (too many parameters): level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 +</pre> + +<p> +Note: versions of xboard prior to 3.6.11beta do not parse the "Error" +format. To ease the transition, it is acceptable to use the "Illegal +move" format for all errors, even if the command given was not a +move. +</p> + +<dt><strong>move MOVE</strong> +<dd>Your engine is making the move MOVE. Do not echo moves from + xboard with this command; send only new moves made by the engine. + +<p> +Note: versions of xboard prior to 3.6.11beta do not parse the above +format, so you may want to use the old "NUMBER ... MOVE" format +temporarily. See the section "<a href="#13">Idioms and backward +compatibility features</a>" below. +</p> + +<p> +For the actual move text from your chess engine (in place of MOVE +above), xboard will accept any kind of unambiguous algebraic format, +including coordinate notation, SAN, and some slight variants of SAN. +You don't have to send the pure coordinate notation that xboard sends +to your engine; xboard parses the output with its general-purpose +move parser, which was built to extract human-typed game scores from +netnews messages. For example, the following will all work: +</p> +<pre> + e2e4 + e4 + Nf3 + ed + exd + exd5 + Nxd5 + Nfd3 + e8q + e8Q + e8=q + e8(Q) + e7e8q + o-o + O-O + 0-0 +</pre> + +<p> +and many more. +</p> + +<dt><strong>RESULT {COMMENT}</strong> +<dd>When your engine detects that the game has ended by rule +(checkmate, stalemate, triple repetition, the 50 move rule, or +insufficient material), your engine must output a line of the form +"RESULT {comment}" (without the quotes), where RESULT is a PGN result +code (1-0, 0-1, or 1/2-1/2), and comment is the reason. Examples: +<pre> + 0-1 {Black mates} + 1-0 {White mates} + 1/2-1/2 {Draw by repetition} + 1/2-1/2 {Stalemate} +</pre> + +<p> +xboard relays the result to the user, the ICS, the other engine in Two +Machines mode, and the PGN save file as required. +</p> + +<dt><strong>resign</strong> +<dd>If your engine wants to resign, it can send the command "resign". +Alternatively, it can use the "RESULT {comment}" command if the string +"resign" is included in the comment; for example "0-1 {White +resigns}". xboard relays the resignation to the user, the ICS, the +other engine in Two Machines mode, and the PGN save file as required. +<p> + +<dt><strong>offer draw</strong> +<dd>If your engine wants to offer a draw by agreement (as opposed to +claiming a draw by rule), it can send the command "offer draw". +xboard relays the offer to the user, the ICS, the other engine in Two +Machines mode, and the PGN save file as required. In Machine White, +Machine Black, or Two Machines mode, the offer is considered valid +until your engine has made two more moves. +<p> + +<dt><strong>telluser MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>xboard pops up a modal information dialog containing the message. +MESSAGE consists of any characters, including whitespace, to the end +of the line. +<p> + +<dt><strong>tellusererror MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>xboard pops up a non-modal error dialog containing the message. +MESSAGE consists of any characters, including whitespace, to the end +of the line. +<p> + +<dt><strong>askuser REPTAG MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>Here REPTAG is a string containing no whitespace, and MESSAGE +consists of any characters, including whitespace, to the end of the +line. xboard pops up a modal question dialog that says MESSAGE and +has a typein box. If the user types in "bar", xboard sends "REPTAG +bar" to the engine. The user can cancel the dialog and send nothing. +<p> + +<dt><strong>tellics MESSAGE</strong> +<dd>In Zippy mode, xboard sends "MESSAGE\n" to ICS. MESSAGE consists +of any characters, including whitespace, to the end of the line. + +</dl> + +<h2><a name="10">10. Thinking Output</a></h2> + +<p> +If the user asks your engine to "show thinking", xboard sends your +engine the "post" command. It sends "nopost" to turn thinking off. +In post mode, your engine sends output lines to show the progress of +its thinking. The engine can send as many or few of these lines as it +wants to, whenever it wants to. Typically they would be sent when the +PV (principal variation) changes or the depth changes. The thinking +output should be in the following format: +</p> + +<pre>ply score time nodes pv</pre> + +Where: +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>ply<td>Integer giving current search depth. +<tr align="left"><th>score<td>Integer giving current evaluation in centipawns. +<tr align="left"><th>time<td>Current search time in centiseconds (ex: +1028 = 10.28 seconds). + +<tr align="left"><th>nodes<td>Nodes searched. +<tr align="left"><th>pv<td>Freeform text giving current "best" line. +You can continue the pv onto another line if you start each +continuation line with at least four space characters. +</table> + +<p> +Example: +</p> + +<pre> 9 156 1084 48000 Nf3 Nc6 Nc3 Nf6</pre> + +<p> +Meaning: +</p> + +9 ply, score=1.56, time = 10.84 seconds, nodes=48000, +PV = "Nf3 Nc6 Nc3 Nf6" + +<p> +Longer example from actual Crafty output: +</p> +<pre> + 4 109 14 1435 1. e4 d5 2. Qf3 dxe4 3. Qxe4 Nc6 + 4 116 23 2252 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. e4 e6 + 4 116 27 2589 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. e4 e6 + 5 141 44 4539 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. O-O e5 3. e4 + 5 141 54 5568 1. Nf3 Nc6 2. O-O e5 3. e4 +</pre> + +<p> +You can use the PV to show other things; for instance, while in book, +Crafty shows the observed frequency of different reply moves in its +book. In situations like this where your engine is not really +searching, start the PV with a '(' character: +</p> + +<pre> + 0 0 0 0 (e4 64%, d4 24%) +</pre> + +<p> +GNU Chess output is very slightly different. The ply number is +followed by an extra nonblank character, and the time is in seconds, +not hundredths of seconds. For compatibility, xboard accepts the +extra character and takes it as a flag indicating the different time +units. Example: +</p> + +<pre> + 2. 14 0 38 d1d2 e8e7 + 3+ 78 0 65 d1d2 e8e7 d2d3 + 3& 14 0 89 d1d2 e8e7 d2d3 + 3& 76 0 191 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 + 3. 76 0 215 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 + 4& 15 0 366 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 + 4. 15 0 515 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 + 5+ 74 0 702 d1e2 f7f5 e2e3 e8e7 e3f4 + 5& 71 0 1085 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3f4 + 5. 71 0 1669 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3f4 + 6& 48 0 3035 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 6. 48 0 3720 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 7& 48 0 6381 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 7. 48 0 10056 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3e4 f7f5 e4d4 + 8& 66 1 20536 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 g7g5 a2a4 f7f5 + 8. 66 1 24387 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 g7g5 a2a4 f7f5 + 9& 62 2 38886 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 a2a4 h5h4 + d4e4 + 9. 62 4 72578 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 a2a4 h5h4 + d4e4 +10& 34 7 135944 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 c2c4 h5h4 + d4e4 f7f5 e4f4 +10. 34 9 173474 d1e2 e8e7 e2e3 e7e6 e3d4 h7h5 c2c4 h5h4 + d4e4 f7f5 e4f4 +</pre> + +<p>If your engine is pondering (thinking on its opponent's time) in post +mode, it can show its thinking then too. In this case your engine may +omit the hint move (the move it is assuming its opponent will make) +from the thinking lines <em>if and only if</em> it sends xboard the move in +the usual "Hint: xxx" format before sending the first line. +</p> + +<h2><a name="11">11. Time control</a></h2> + +<p> +xboard supports three styles of time control: conventional chess clocks, +the ICS-style incremental clock, and an exact number of seconds per move. +</p> + +<p>In conventional clock mode, every time control period is the same. +That is, if the time control is 40 moves in 5 minutes, then after each +side has made 40 moves, they each get an additional 5 minutes, and so +on, ad infinitum. At some future time it would be nice to support a +series of distinct time controls. This is very low on my personal +priority list, but code donations to the xboard project are accepted, +so feel free to take a swing at it. I suggest you talk to me first, +though. +</p> + +<p> +The command to set a conventional time control looks like this: +</p> + +<pre> + level 40 5 0 + level 40 0:30 0 +</pre> + +<p> +The 40 means that there are 40 moves per time control. The 5 means +there are 5 minutes in the control. In the second example, the 0:30 +means there are 30 seconds. The final 0 means that we are in +conventional clock mode. +</p> + +<p> +The command to set an incremental time control looks like this: +</p> + +<pre> + level 0 2 12 +</pre> + +<p> +Here the 0 means "play the whole game in this time control period", +the 2 means "base=2 minutes", and the 12 means "inc=12 seconds". As +in conventional clock mode, the second argument to level can be in +minutes and seconds. +</p> + +<p> +At the start of the game, each player's clock is set to base minutes. +Immediately after a player makes a move, inc seconds are added to his +clock. A player's clock counts down while it is his turn. Your flag +can be called whenever your clock is zero or negative. (Your clock +can go negative and then become positive again because of the +increment.) +</p> + +<p> +A special ICS rule: if you ask for a game with base=0, the clocks +really start at 10 seconds instead of 0. xboard itself does not know +about this rule currently, so it may pass the 0 on to the engine +instead of changing it to 0:10. +</p> + +<p> +ICS also has time odds games. With time odds, each player has his own +(base, inc) pair, but otherwise things work the same as in normal +games. The Zippy xboard accepts time odds games but ignores the fact +that the opponent's parameters are different; this is perhaps not +quite the right thing to do, but gnuchess doesn't understand time +odds. Time odds games are always unrated. +</p> + +<p>The command to set an exact number of seconds per move looks like this: +</p> + +<pre> + st 30 +</pre> + +<p> +This means that each move must be made in 30 seconds. Time not used +on one move does not accumulate for use on later moves. +</p> + +<h2><a name="12">12. Analyze Mode</a></h2> + +<p>xboard supports analyzing fresh games, edited positions, and games +from files. However, all of these look the same from the chess +engine's perspective. Basically, the engine just has to respond to the +"analyze" command. If your engine does not support analyze mode, it +should print the error message "Error (unknown command): analyze" in +response to the "analyze" command. +</p> + +<p> +To enter analyze mode, xboard sends the command sequence "post", +"white" or "black", "analyze". Analyze mode in your engine should be +similar to force mode, except that your engine thinks about what move +it would make next if it were on move. Your engine should accept the +following commands while in analyze mode: +</p> + +<ul> +<li>Any legal move, as in force mode +<li>"undo" +<li>"new" (reset position to start of game but stay in analyze mode) +<li>"edit" (exiting edit mode returns to analyze mode) +<li>"exit" (leave analyze mode) +<li>"." (optional, see below) +</ul> + +<p> +If the user selects "Periodic Updates", xboard will send the string +".\n" to the chess engine periodically during analyze mode, unless the +last PV received began with a '(' character. +</p> + +<p> +The chess engine should respond to ".\n" with a line like this: +</p> + +<pre> +stat01: time nodes ply mvleft mvtot +</pre> + +Where: +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>time<td>Elapsed search time in centiseconds (ie: 567 = 5.67 seconds). +<tr align="left"><th>nodes<td>Nodes searched so far. +<tr align="left"><th>ply<td>Search depth so far. +<tr align="left"><th>mvleft<td>Number of moves left to consider at this depth. +<tr align="left"><th>mvtot<td>Total number of moves to consider. +</table> + +<p> +Example: +</p> +<pre> + stat01: 1234 30000 7 5 30 +</pre> + +<p> +Meaning: +</p> + +<p>After 12.34 seconds, I've searched 7 ply/30000 nodes, there are a + total of 30 legal moves, and I have 5 more moves to search + before going to depth 8.</p> + +<p> +Implementation of the "." command is OPTIONAL. If the engine does not +respond to the "." command with a "stat01..." line, xboard will stop +sending "." commands. If the engine does not implement this command, +the analysis window will use a shortened format to display the engine +info. +</p> + +<p> +To give the user some extra information, the chess engine can output +the strings "++\n" and "--\n", to indicate that the current search is +failing high or low, respectively. You don't have to send anything +else to say "Okay, I'm not failing high/low anymore." xboard will +figure this out itself. +</p> + +<h2><a name="13">13. Idioms and backward compatibility features</a></h2> + +<p> +Some engines have variant interpretations of the force/go/white/black, +time/otim, and hard/easy command sets. New engines should not use +these interpretations, but in order to accommodate existing engines, +xboard is currently very conservative about how it uses these +commands. Only the following idioms are currently used. +</p> + +<dl> + +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when the engine is in force mode or playing Black but should +switch to playing White. This sequence is sent only when White is +already on move. +<p> + +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when the engine is in force mode or playing White but should +switch to playing Black. This sequence is sent only when Black is +already on move. +<p> + +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> +<dt><strong>MOVE</strong> +<dd>Sent when the opponent makes a move and the engine is already +playing the opposite color. +<p> + +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when Black is on move, the engine is in force mode or playing +White, and the engine's clock needs to be updated before it starts +playing. The initial "white" is a kludge to accommodate GNU Chess +4.0.77's variant interpretation of these commands. It may be removed +in the future, especially if it causes problems for other engines. +<p> + +<dt><strong>black</strong> +<dt><strong>time N</strong> +<dt><strong>otim N</strong> +<dt><strong>white</strong> +<dt><strong>go</strong> +<dd>Sent when White is on move, the engine is in force mode or playing +Black, and the engine's clock needs to be updated before it starts +playing. See previous idiom. +<p> + +<dt><strong>hard</strong> +<dt><strong>easy</strong> +<dd>Sent in sequence to turn off pondering if xboard is not sure +whether it is on. When xboard is sure, it will send "hard" or "easy" +alone. xboard does this because "easy" is a toggle in GNU Chess but +"hard" is an absolute on. + +</dl> + +<p> +To support older engines, certain additional commands from the engine +to xboard are also recognized. (These are commands by themselves, not +values to be placed in the comment field of the PGN result code.) +These forms are not recommended for new engines; use the PGN result +code commands or the resign command instead: +</p> + +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>Command <th>Interpreted as +<tr align="left"><td>White resigns <td>0-1 {White resigns} +<tr align="left"><td>Black resigns <td>1-0 {Black resigns} +<tr align="left"><td>White <td>1-0 {White mates} +<tr align="left"><td>Black <td>0-1 {Black mates} +<tr align="left"><td>Draw <td>1/2-1/2 {Draw} +<tr align="left"><td>computer mates <td>1-0 {White mates} or 0-1 {Black mates} +<tr align="left"><td>opponent mates <td>1-0 {White mates} or 0-1 {Black mates} +<tr align="left"><td>computer resigns <td>0-1 {White resigns} or 1-0 {Black resigns} +<tr align="left"><td>game is a draw <td>1/2-1/2 {Draw} +<tr align="left"><td>checkmate <td>1-0 {White mates} or 0-1 {Black mates} +</table> + +<p> +Commands in the above table are recognized if they begin a line and +arbitrary characters follow, so (for example) "White mates" will be +recognized as "White", and "game is a draw by the 50 move rule" will +be recognized as "game is a draw". All the commands are +case-sensitive. +</p> + +<p> +An alternative move syntax is also recognized: +</p> + +<table> +<tr align="left"><th>Command <th>Interpreted as +<tr align="left"><td>NUMBER ... MOVE <td>move MOVE +</table> + +<p> +Here NUMBER means any string of decimal digits, optionally ending in a +period. MOVE is any string containing no whitespace. In this command +format, xboard requires the "..." even if your engine is playing +White. A command of the form NUMBER MOVE will be ignored. This odd +treatment of the commands is needed for compatibility with gnuchessx. +The original reasons for it are lost in the mists of time, but I +suspect it was originally a bug in the earliest versions of xboard, +before I started working on it, which someone "fixed" in the wrong +way, by creating a special version of gnuchess (gnuchessx) instead of +changing xboard. +</p> + +<p> +Any line that contains the words "offer" and "draw" is recognized as +"offer draw". +</p> + +<p> +The "Illegal move" message is recognized even if spelled "illegal +move" and even if the colon (":") is omitted. This accommodates GNU +Chess 4.0.77, which prints messages like "Illegal move (no matching +move)e2e4", and old versions of Crafty, which print just "illegal move". +</p> + +<p> +In Zippy mode, for compatibility with existing versions of Crafty, +xboard passes through to ICS any line that begins "kibitz", "whisper", +"tell", or "draw". Do not use this feature in new code. +</p> + +<p> +Before the "sd DEPTH" command, xboard also sends the command +"depth\nDEPTH", for the benefit of GNU Chess. Note the newline in the +middle of this command. Ugh. +</p> + +<p> +For the benefit of GNU Chess, if an "st TIME"-style time control is +being used, TIME is also given to the engine as a command-line +argument when it is started. Ugh. +</p> + +<hr noshade size="2"> +<address>converted to HTML by <a href="http://www.jakob.at/steffen/">Steffen A. Jakob</a></address> +</body> +</html> |